Chapter IV: Comparison of the Mental Powers of Man and the Lower Animals--Continued
The moral sense--Fundamental proposition--The qualities of social animals--
Origin of sociability--Struggle between opposed instincts--Man a social
animal--The more enduring social instincts conquer other less persistent
instincts--The social virtues alone regarded by savages--The self-regarding
virtues acquired at a later stage of development--The importance of the judgment
of the members of the same community on conduct--Transmission of moral
tendencies--Summary.
I fully subscribe to the judgment of those writers (1. See, for instance, on
this subject, Quatrefages, 'Unite de l'Espece Humaine,' 1861, p. 21, etc.) who
maintain that of all the differences between man and the lower animals, the
moral sense or conscience is by far the most important. This sense, as
Mackintosh (2. 'Dissertation an Ethical Philosophy,' 1837, p. 231, etc.)
remarks, "has a rightful supremacy over every other principle of human
action"; it is summed up in that short but imperious word
"ought," so full of high significance. It is the most noble of all the
attributes of man, leading him without a moment's hesitation to risk his life
for that of a fellow-creature; or after due deliberation, impelled simply by the
deep feeling of right or duty, to sacrifice it in some great cause. Immanuel
Kant exclaims, "Duty! Wondrous thought, that workest neither by fond
insinuation, flattery, nor by any threat, but merely by holding up thy naked law
in the soul, and so extorting for thyself always reverence, if not always
obedience; before whom all appetites are dumb, however secretly they rebel;
whence thy original?" (3. 'Metaphysics of Ethics,' translated by J.W.
Semple, Edinburgh, 1836, p. 136.)
This great question has been discussed by many writers (4. Mr. Bain gives a
list ('Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, pp. 543-725) of twenty-six British
authors who have written on this subject, and whose names are familiar to every
reader; to these, Mr. Bain's own name, and those of Mr. Lecky, Mr. Shadworth
Hodgson, Sir J. Lubbock, and others, might be added.) of consummate ability; and
my sole excuse for touching on it, is the impossibility of here passing it over;
and because, as far as I know, no one has approached it exclusively from the
side of natural history. The investigation possesses, also, some independent
interest, as an attempt to see how far the study of the lower animals throws
light on one of the highest psychical faculties of man.
The following proposition seems to me in a high degree probable--namely, that
any animal whatever, endowed with well-marked social instincts (5. Sir B. Brodie,
after observing that man is a social animal ('Psychological Enquiries,' 1854, p.
192), asks the pregnant question, "ought not this to settle the disputed
question as to the existence of a moral sense?" Similar ideas have probably
occurred to many persons, as they did long ago to Marcus Aurelius. Mr. J.S. Mill
speaks, in his celebrated work, 'Utilitarianism,' (1864, pp. 45, 46), of the
social feelings as a "powerful natural sentiment," and as "the
natural basis of sentiment for utilitarian morality." Again he says,
"Like the other acquired capacities above referred to, the moral faculty,
if not a part of our nature, is a natural out-growth from it; capable, like
them, in a certain small degree of springing up spontaneously." But in
opposition to all this, he also remarks, "if, as in my own belief, the
moral feelings are not innate, but acquired, they are not for that reason less
natural." It is with hesitation that I venture to differ at all from so
profound a thinker, but it can hardly be disputed that the social feelings are
instinctive or innate in the lower animals; and why should they not be so in
man? Mr. Bain (see, for instance, 'The Emotions and the Will,' 1865, p. 481) and
others believe that the moral sense is acquired by each individual during his
lifetime. On the general theory of evolution this is at least extremely
improbable. The ignoring of all transmitted mental qualities will, as it seems
to me, be hereafter judged as a most serious blemish in the works of Mr. Mill.),
the parental and filial affections being here included, would inevitably acquire
a moral sense or conscience, as soon as its intellectual powers had become as
well, or nearly as well developed, as in man. For, FIRSTLY, the social instincts
lead an animal to take pleasure in the society of its fellows, to feel a certain
amount of sympathy with them, and to perform various services for them. The
services may be of a definite and evidently instinctive nature; or there may be
only a wish and readiness, as with most of the higher social animals, to aid
their fellows in certain general ways. But these feelings and services are by no
means extended to all the individuals of the same species, only to those of the
same association. SECONDLY, as soon as the mental faculties had become highly
developed, images of all past actions and motives would be incessantly passing
through the brain of each individual: and that feeling of dissatisfaction, or
even misery, which invariably results, as we shall hereafter see, from any
unsatisfied instinct, would arise, as often as it was perceived that the
enduring and always present social instinct had yielded to some other instinct,
at the time stronger, but neither enduring in its nature, nor leaving behind it
a very vivid impression. It is clear that many instinctive desires, such as that
of hunger, are in their nature of short duration; and after being satisfied, are
not readily or vividly recalled. THIRDLY, after the power of language had been
acquired, and the wishes of the community could be expressed, the common opinion
how each member ought to act for the public good, would naturally become in a
paramount degree the guide to action. But it should be borne in mind that
however great weight we may attribute to public opinion, our regard for the
approbation and disapprobation of our fellows depends on sympathy, which, as we
shall see, forms an essential part of the social instinct, and is indeed its
foundation-stone. LASTLY, habit in the individual would ultimately play a very
important part in guiding the conduct of each member; for the social instinct,
together with sympathy, is, like any other instinct, greatly strengthened by
habit, and so consequently would be obedience to the wishes and judgment of the
community. These several subordinate propositions must now be discussed, and
some of them at considerable length.
It may be well first to premise that I do not wish to maintain that any
strictly social animal, if its intellectual faculties were to become as active
and as highly developed as in man, would acquire exactly the same moral sense as
ours. In the same manner as various animals have some sense of beauty, though
they admire widely-different objects, so they might have a sense of right and
wrong, though led by it to follow widely different lines of conduct. If, for
instance, to take an extreme case, men were reared under precisely the same
conditions as hive-bees, there can hardly be a doubt that our unmarried females
would, like the worker-bees, think it a sacred duty to kill their brothers, and
mothers would strive to kill their fertile daughters; and no one would think of
interfering. (6. Mr. H. Sidgwick remarks, in an able discussion on this subject
(the 'Academy,' June 15, 1872, p. 231), "a superior bee, we may feel sure,
would aspire to a milder solution of the population question." Judging,
however, from the habits of many or most savages, man solves the problem by
female infanticide, polyandry and promiscuous intercourse; therefore it may well
be doubted whether it would be by a milder method. Miss Cobbe, in commenting
('Darwinism in Morals,' 'Theological Review,' April 1872, pp. 188-191) on the
same illustration, says, the PRINCIPLES of social duty would be thus reversed;
and by this, I presume, she means that the fulfilment of a social duty would
tend to the injury of individuals; but she overlooks the fact, which she would
doubtless admit, that the instincts of the bee have been acquired for the good
of the community. She goes so far as to say that if the theory of ethics
advocated in this chapter were ever generally accepted, "I cannot but
believe that in the hour of their triumph would be sounded the knell of the
virtue of mankind!" It is to be hoped that the belief in the permanence of
virtue on this earth is not held by many persons on so weak a tenure.)
Nevertheless, the bee, or any other social animal, would gain in our supposed
case, as it appears to me, some feeling of right or wrong, or a conscience. For
each individual would have an inward sense of possessing certain stronger or
more enduring instincts, and others less strong or enduring; so that there would
often be a struggle as to which impulse should be followed; and satisfaction,
dissatisfaction, or even misery would be felt, as past impressions were compared
during their incessant passage through the mind. In this case an inward monitor
would tell the animal that it would have been better to have followed the one
impulse rather than the other. The one course ought to have been followed, and
the other ought not; the one would have been right and the other wrong; but to
these terms I shall recur.
SOCIABILITY.
Animals of many kinds are social; we find even distinct species living
together; for example, some American monkeys; and united flocks of rooks,
jackdaws, and starlings. Man shews the same feeling in his strong love for the
dog, which the dog returns with interest. Every one must have noticed how
miserable horses, dogs, sheep, etc., are when separated from their companions,
and what strong mutual affection the two former kinds, at least, shew on their
reunion. It is curious to speculate on the feelings of a dog, who will rest
peacefully for hours in a room with his master or any of the family, without the
least notice being taken of him; but if left for a short time by himself, barks
or howls dismally. We will confine our attention to the higher social animals;
and pass over insects, although some of these are social, and aid one another in
many important ways. The most common mutual service in the higher animals is to
warn one another of danger by means of the united senses of all. Every sportsman
knows, as Dr. Jaeger remarks (7. 'Die Darwin'sche Theorie,' s. 101.), how
difficult it is to approach animals in a herd or troop. Wild horses and cattle
do not, I believe, make any danger-signal; but the attitude of any one of them
who first discovers an enemy, warns the others. Rabbits stamp loudly on the
ground with their hind-feet as a signal: sheep and chamois do the same with
their forefeet, uttering likewise a whistle. Many birds, and some mammals, post
sentinels, which in the case of seals are said (8. Mr. R. Brown in 'Proc. Zoolog.
Soc.' 1868, p. 409.) generally to be the females. The leader of a troop of
monkeys acts as the sentinel, and utters cries expressive both of danger and of
safety. (9. Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. 1864, s. 52, 79. For the case of the
monkeys extracting thorns from each other, see s. 54. With respect to the
Hamadryas turning over stones, the fact is given (s. 76), on the evidence of
Alvarez, whose observations Brehm thinks quite trustworthy. For the cases of the
old male baboons attacking the dogs, see s. 79; and with respect to the eagle, s.
56.) Social animals perform many little services for each other: horses nibble,
and cows lick each other, on any spot which itches: monkeys search each other
for external parasites; and Brehm states that after a troop of the Cercopithecus
griseo-viridis has rushed through a thorny brake, each monkey stretches itself
on a branch, and another monkey sitting by, "conscientiously" examines
its fur, and extracts every thorn or burr.
Animals also render more important services to one another: thus wolves and
some other beasts of prey hunt in packs, and aid one another in attacking their
victims. Pelicans fish in concert. The Hamadryas baboons turn over stones to
find insects, etc.; and when they come to a large one, as many as can stand
round, turn it over together and share the booty. Social animals mutually defend
each other. Bull bisons in N. America, when there is danger, drive the cows and
calves into the middle of the herd, whilst they defend the outside. I shall also
in a future chapter give an account of two young wild bulls at Chillingham
attacking an old one in concert, and of two stallions together trying to drive
away a third stallion from a troop of mares. In Abyssinia, Brehm encountered a
great troop of baboons who were crossing a valley: some had already ascended the
opposite mountain, and some were still in the valley; the latter were attacked
by the dogs, but the old males immediately hurried down from the rocks, and with
mouths widely opened, roared so fearfully, that the dogs quickly drew back. They
were again encouraged to the attack; but by this time all the baboons had
reascended the heights, excepting a young one, about six months old, who, loudly
calling for aid, climbed on a block of rock, and was surrounded. Now one of the
largest males, a true hero, came down again from the mountain, slowly went to
the young one, coaxed him, and triumphantly led him away--the dogs being too
much astonished to make an attack. I cannot resist giving another scene which
was witnessed by this same naturalist; an eagle seized a young Cercopithecus,
which, by clinging to a branch, was not at once carried off; it cried loudly for
assistance, upon which the other members of the troop, with much uproar, rushed
to the rescue, surrounded the eagle, and pulled out so many feathers, that he no
longer thought of his prey, but only how to escape. This eagle, as Brehm
remarks, assuredly would never again attack a single monkey of a troop. (10. Mr.
Belt gives the case of a spider-monkey (Ateles) in Nicaragua, which was heard
screaming for nearly two hours in the forest, and was found with an eagle
perched close by it. The bird apparently feared to attack as long as it remained
face to face; and Mr. Belt believes, from what he has seen of the habits of
these monkeys, that they protect themselves from eagles by keeping two or three
together. 'The Naturalist in Nicaragua,' 1874, p. 118.)
It is certain that associated animals have a feeling of love for each other,
which is not felt by non-social adult animals. How far in most cases they
actually sympathise in the pains and pleasures of others, is more doubtful,
especially with respect to pleasures. Mr. Buxton, however, who had excellent
means of observation (11. 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' November
1868, p. 382.), states that his macaws, which lived free in Norfolk, took
"an extravagant interest" in a pair with a nest; and whenever the
female left it, she was surrounded by a troop "screaming horrible
acclamations in her honour." It is often difficult to judge whether animals
have any feeling for the sufferings of others of their kind. Who can say what
cows feel, when they surround and stare intently on a dying or dead companion;
apparently, however, as Houzeau remarks, they feel no pity. That animals
sometimes are far from feeling any sympathy is too certain; for they will expel
a wounded animal from the herd, or gore or worry it to death. This is almost the
blackest fact in natural history, unless, indeed, the explanation which has been
suggested is true, that their instinct or reason leads them to expel an injured
companion, lest beasts of prey, including man, should be tempted to follow the
troop. In this case their conduct is not much worse than that of the North
American Indians, who leave their feeble comrades to perish on the plains; or
the Fijians, who, when their parents get old, or fall ill, bury them alive. (12.
Sir J. Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd ed., p. 446.)
Many animals, however, certainly sympathise with each other's distress or
danger. This is the case even with birds. Captain Stansbury (13. As quoted by
Mr. L.H. Morgan, 'The American Beaver,' 1868, p. 272. Capt. Stansbury also gives
an interesting account of the manner in which a very young pelican, carried away
by a strong stream, was guided and encouraged in its attempts to reach the shore
by half a dozen old birds.) found on a salt lake in Utah an old and completely
blind pelican, which was very fat, and must have been well fed for a long time
by his companions. Mr. Blyth, as he informs me, saw Indian crows feeding two or
three of their companions which were blind; and I have heard of an analogous
case with the domestic cock. We may, if we choose, call these actions
instinctive; but such cases are much too rare for the development of any special
instinct. (14. As Mr. Bain states, "effective aid to a sufferer springs
from sympathy proper:" 'Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, p. 245.) I have
myself seen a dog, who never passed a cat who lay sick in a basket, and was a
great friend of his, without giving her a few licks with his tongue, the surest
sign of kind feeling in a dog.
It must be called sympathy that leads a courageous dog to fly at any one who
strikes his master, as he certainly will. I saw a person pretending to beat a
lady, who had a very timid little dog on her lap, and the trial had never been
made before; the little creature instantly jumped away, but after the pretended
beating was over, it was really pathetic to see how perseveringly he tried to
lick his mistress's face, and comfort her. Brehm (15. 'Thierleben,' B. i. s.
85.) states that when a baboon in confinement was pursued to be punished, the
others tried to protect him. It must have been sympathy in the cases above given
which led the baboons and Cercopitheci to defend their young comrades from the
dogs and the eagle. I will give only one other instance of sympathetic and
heroic conduct, in the case of a little American monkey. Several years ago a
keeper at the Zoological Gardens shewed me some deep and scarcely healed wounds
on the nape of his own neck, inflicted on him, whilst kneeling on the floor, by
a fierce baboon. The little American monkey, who was a warm friend of this
keeper, lived in the same large compartment, and was dreadfully afraid of the
great baboon. Nevertheless, as soon as he saw his friend in peril, he rushed to
the rescue, and by screams and bites so distracted the baboon that the man was
able to escape, after, as the surgeon thought, running great risk of his life.
Besides love and sympathy, animals exhibit other qualities connected with the
social instincts, which in us would be called moral; and I agree with Agassiz
(16. 'De l'Espece et de la Classe,' 1869, p. 97.) that dogs possess something
very like a conscience.
Dogs possess some power of self-command, and this does not appear to be
wholly the result of fear. As Braubach (17. 'Die Darwin'sche Art-Lehre,' 1869, s.
54.) remarks, they will refrain from stealing food in the absence of their
master. They have long been accepted as the very type of fidelity and obedience.
But the elephant is likewise very faithful to his driver or keeper, and probably
considers him as the leader of the herd. Dr. Hooker informs me that an elephant,
which he was riding in India, became so deeply bogged that he remained stuck
fast until the next day, when he was extricated by men with ropes. Under such
circumstances elephants will seize with their trunks any object, dead or alive,
to place under their knees, to prevent their sinking deeper in the mud; and the
driver was dreadfully afraid lest the animal should have seized Dr. Hooker and
crushed him to death. But the driver himself, as Dr. Hooker was assured, ran no
risk. This forbearance under an emergency so dreadful for a heavy animal, is a
wonderful proof of noble fidelity. (18. See also Hooker's 'Himalayan Journals,'
vol. ii. 1854, p. 333.)
All animals living in a body, which defend themselves or attack their enemies
in concert, must indeed be in some degree faithful to one another; and those
that follow a leader must be in some degree obedient. When the baboons in
Abyssinia (19. Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 76.) plunder a garden, they
silently follow their leader; and if an imprudent young animal makes a noise, he
receives a slap from the others to teach him silence and obedience. Mr. Galton,
who has had excellent opportunities for observing the half-wild cattle in S.
Africa, says (20. See his extremely interesting paper on 'Gregariousness in
Cattle, and in Man,' 'Macmillan's Magazine,' Feb. 1871, p. 353.), that they
cannot endure even a momentary separation from the herd. They are essentially
slavish, and accept the common determination, seeking no better lot than to be
led by any one ox who has enough self-reliance to accept the position. The men
who break in these animals for harness, watch assiduously for those who, by
grazing apart, shew a self-reliant disposition, and these they train as
fore-oxen. Mr. Galton adds that such animals are rare and valuable; and if many
were born they would soon be eliminated, as lions are always on the look-out for
the individuals which wander from the herd.
With respect to the impulse which leads certain animals to associate
together, and to aid one another in many ways, we may infer that in most cases
they are impelled by the same sense of satisfaction or pleasure which they
experience in performing other instinctive actions; or by the same sense of
dissatisfaction as when other instinctive actions are checked. We see this in
innumerable instances, and it is illustrated in a striking manner by the
acquired instincts of our domesticated animals; thus a young shepherd-dog
delights in driving and running round a flock of sheep, but not in worrying
them; a young fox-hound delights in hunting a fox, whilst some other kinds of
dogs, as I have witnessed, utterly disregard foxes. What a strong feeling of
inward satisfaction must impel a bird, so full of activity, to brood day after
day over her eggs. Migratory birds are quite miserable if stopped from
migrating; perhaps they enjoy starting on their long flight; but it is hard to
believe that the poor pinioned goose, described by Audubon, which started on
foot at the proper time for its journey of probably more than a thousand miles,
could have felt any joy in doing so. Some instincts are determined solely by
painful feelings, as by fear, which leads to self-preservation, and is in some
cases directed towards special enemies. No one, I presume, can analyse the
sensations of pleasure or pain. In many instances, however, it is probable that
instincts are persistently followed from the mere force of inheritance, without
the stimulus of either pleasure or pain. A young pointer, when it first scents
game, apparently cannot help pointing. A squirrel in a cage who pats the nuts
which it cannot eat, as if to bury them in the ground, can hardly be thought to
act thus, either from pleasure or pain. Hence the common assumption that men
must be impelled to every action by experiencing some pleasure or pain may be
erroneous. Although a habit may be blindly and implicitly followed,
independently of any pleasure or pain felt at the moment, yet if it be forcibly
and abruptly checked, a vague sense of dissatisfaction is generally experienced.
It has often been assumed that animals were in the first place rendered
social, and that they feel as a consequence uncomfortable when separated from
each other, and comfortable whilst together; but it is a more probable view that
these sensations were first developed, in order that those animals which would
profit by living in society, should be induced to live together, in the same
manner as the sense of hunger and the pleasure of eating were, no doubt, first
acquired in order to induce animals to eat. The feeling of pleasure from society
is probably an extension of the parental or filial affections, since the social
instinct seems to be developed by the young remaining for a long time with their
parents; and this extension may be attributed in part to habit, but chiefly to
natural selection. With those animals which were benefited by living in close
association, the individuals which took the greatest pleasure in society would
best escape various dangers, whilst those that cared least for their comrades,
and lived solitary, would perish in greater numbers. With respect to the origin
of the parental and filial affections, which apparently lie at the base of the
social instincts, we know not the steps by which they have been gained; but we
may infer that it has been to a large extent through natural selection. So it
has almost certainly been with the unusual and opposite feeling of hatred
between the nearest relations, as with the worker-bees which kill their brother
drones, and with the queen-bees which kill their daughter-queens; the desire to
destroy their nearest relations having been in this case of service to the
community. Parental affection, or some feeling which replaces it, has been
developed in certain animals extremely low in the scale, for example, in
star-fishes and spiders. It is also occasionally present in a few members alone
in a whole group of animals, as in the genus Forficula, or earwigs.
The all-important emotion of sympathy is distinct from that of love. A mother
may passionately love her sleeping and passive infant, but she can hardly at
such times be said to feel sympathy for it. The love of a man for his dog is
distinct from sympathy, and so is that of a dog for his master. Adam Smith
formerly argued, as has Mr. Bain recently, that the basis of sympathy lies in
our strong retentiveness of former states of pain or pleasure. Hence, "the
sight of another person enduring hunger, cold, fatigue, revives in us some
recollection of these states, which are painful even in idea." We are thus
impelled to relieve the sufferings of another, in order that our own painful
feelings may be at the same time relieved. In like manner we are led to
participate in the pleasures of others. (21. See the first and striking chapter
in Adam Smith's 'Theory of Moral Sentiments.' Also 'Mr. Bain's Mental and Moral
Science,' 1868, pp. 244, and 275-282. Mr. Bain states, that, "sympathy is,
indirectly, a source of pleasure to the sympathiser"; and he accounts for
this through reciprocity. He remarks that "the person benefited, or others
in his stead, may make up, by sympathy and good offices returned, for all the
sacrifice." But if, as appears to be the case, sympathy is strictly an
instinct, its exercise would give direct pleasure, in the same manner as the
exercise, as before remarked, of almost every other instinct.) But I cannot see
how this view explains the fact that sympathy is excited, in an immeasurably
stronger degree, by a beloved, than by an indifferent person. The mere sight of
suffering, independently of love, would suffice to call up in us vivid
recollections and associations. The explanation may lie in the fact that, with
all animals, sympathy is directed solely towards the members of the same
community, and therefore towards known, and more or less beloved members, but
not to all the individuals of the same species. This fact is not more surprising
than that the fears of many animals should be directed against special enemies.
Species which are not social, such as lions and tigers, no doubt feel sympathy
for the suffering of their own young, but not for that of any other animal. With
mankind, selfishness, experience, and imitation, probably add, as Mr. Bain has
shewn, to the power of sympathy; for we are led by the hope of receiving good in
return to perform acts of sympathetic kindness to others; and sympathy is much
strengthened by habit. In however complex a manner this feeling may have
originated, as it is one of high importance to all those animals which aid and
defend one another, it will have been increased through natural selection; for
those communities, which included the greatest number of the most sympathetic
members, would flourish best, and rear the greatest number of offspring.
It is, however, impossible to decide in many cases whether certain social
instincts have been acquired through natural selection, or are the indirect
result of other instincts and faculties, such as sympathy, reason, experience,
and a tendency to imitation; or again, whether they are simply the result of
long-continued habit. So remarkable an instinct as the placing sentinels to warn
the community of danger, can hardly have been the indirect result of any of
these faculties; it must, therefore, have been directly acquired. On the other
hand, the habit followed by the males of some social animals of defending the
community, and of attacking their enemies or their prey in concert, may perhaps
have originated from mutual sympathy; but courage, and in most cases strength,
must have been previously acquired, probably through natural selection.
Of the various instincts and habits, some are much stronger than others; that
is, some either give more pleasure in their performance, and more distress in
their prevention, than others; or, which is probably quite as important, they
are, through inheritance, more persistently followed, without exciting any
special feeling of pleasure or pain. We are ourselves conscious that some habits
are much more difficult to cure or change than others. Hence a struggle may
often be observed in animals between different instincts, or between an instinct
and some habitual disposition; as when a dog rushes after a hare, is rebuked,
pauses, hesitates, pursues again, or returns ashamed to his master; or as
between the love of a female dog for her young puppies and for her master,--for
she may be seen to slink away to them, as if half ashamed of not accompanying
her master. But the most curious instance known to me of one instinct getting
the better of another, is the migratory instinct conquering the maternal
instinct. The former is wonderfully strong; a confined bird will at the proper
season beat her breast against the wires of her cage, until it is bare and
bloody. It causes young salmon to leap out of the fresh water, in which they
could continue to exist, and thus unintentionally to commit suicide. Every one
knows how strong the maternal instinct is, leading even timid birds to face
great danger, though with hesitation, and in opposition to the instinct of
self-preservation. Nevertheless, the migratory instinct is so powerful, that
late in the autumn swallows, house-martins, and swifts frequently desert their
tender young, leaving them to perish miserably in their nests. (22. This fact,
the Rev. L. Jenyns states (see his edition of 'White's Nat. Hist. of Selborne,'
1853, p. 204) was first recorded by the illustrious Jenner, in 'Phil. Transact.'
1824, and has since been confirmed by several observers, especially by Mr.
Blackwall. This latter careful observer examined, late in the autumn, during two
years, thirty-six nests; he found that twelve contained young dead birds, five
contained eggs on the point of being hatched, and three, eggs not nearly
hatched. Many birds, not yet old enough for a prolonged flight, are likewise
deserted and left behind. See Blackwall, 'Researches in Zoology,' 1834, pp. 108,
118. For some additional evidence, although this is not wanted, see Leroy, 'Lettres
Phil.' 1802, p. 217. For Swifts, Gould's 'Introduction to the Birds of Great
Britain,' 1823, p. 5. Similar cases have been observed in Canada by Mr. Adams;
'Pop. Science Review,' July 1873, p. 283.)
We can perceive that an instinctive impulse, if it be in any way more
beneficial to a species than some other or opposed instinct, would be rendered
the more potent of the two through natural selection; for the individuals which
had it most strongly developed would survive in larger numbers. Whether this is
the case with the migratory in comparison with the maternal instinct, may be
doubted. The great persistence, or steady action of the former at certain
seasons of the year during the whole day, may give it for a time paramount
force.
MAN A SOCIAL ANIMAL.
Every one will admit that man is a social being. We see this in his dislike
of solitude, and in his wish for society beyond that of his own family. Solitary
confinement is one of the severest punishments which can be inflicted. Some
authors suppose that man primevally lived in single families; but at the present
day, though single families, or only two or three together, roam the solitudes
of some savage lands, they always, as far as I can discover, hold friendly
relations with other families inhabiting the same district. Such families
occasionally meet in council, and unite for their common defence. It is no
argument against savage man being a social animal, that the tribes inhabiting
adjacent districts are almost always at war with each other; for the social
instincts never extend to all the individuals of the same species. Judging from
the analogy of the majority of the Quadrumana, it is probable that the early
ape-like progenitors of man were likewise social; but this is not of much
importance for us. Although man, as he now exists, has few special instincts,
having lost any which his early progenitors may have possessed, this is no
reason why he should not have retained from an extremely remote period some
degree of instinctive love and sympathy for his fellows. We are indeed all
conscious that we do possess such sympathetic feelings (23. Hume remarks ('An
Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals,' edit. of 1751, p. 132),
"There seems a necessity for confessing that the happiness and misery of
others are not spectacles altogether indifferent to us, but that the view of the
former...communicates a secret joy; the appearance of the latter... throws a
melancholy damp over the imagination."); but our consciousness does not
tell us whether they are instinctive, having originated long ago in the same
manner as with the lower animals, or whether they have been acquired by each of
us during our early years. As man is a social animal, it is almost certain that
he would inherit a tendency to be faithful to his comrades, and obedient to the
leader of his tribe; for these qualities are common to most social animals. He
would consequently possess some capacity for self-command. He would from an
inherited tendency be willing to defend, in concert with others, his fellow-men;
and would be ready to aid them in any way, which did not too greatly interfere
with his own welfare or his own strong desires.
The social animals which stand at the bottom of the scale are guided almost
exclusively, and those which stand higher in the scale are largely guided, by
special instincts in the aid which they give to the members of the same
community; but they are likewise in part impelled by mutual love and sympathy,
assisted apparently by some amount of reason. Although man, as just remarked,
has no special instincts to tell him how to aid his fellow- men, he still has
the impulse, and with his improved intellectual faculties would naturally be
much guided in this respect by reason and experience. Instinctive sympathy would
also cause him to value highly the approbation of his fellows; for, as Mr. Bain
has clearly shewn (24. 'Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, p. 254.), the love of
praise and the strong feeling of glory, and the still stronger horror of scorn
and infamy, "are due to the workings of sympathy." Consequently man
would be influenced in the highest degree by the wishes, approbation, and blame
of his fellow-men, as expressed by their gestures and language. Thus the social
instincts, which must have been acquired by man in a very rude state, and
probably even by his early ape-like progenitors, still give the impulse to some
of his best actions; but his actions are in a higher degree determined by the
expressed wishes and judgment of his fellow-men, and unfortunately very often by
his own strong selfish desires. But as love, sympathy and self-command become
strengthened by habit, and as the power of reasoning becomes clearer, so that
man can value justly the judgments of his fellows, he will feel himself
impelled, apart from any transitory pleasure or pain, to certain lines of
conduct. He might then declare--not that any barbarian or uncultivated man could
thus think--I am the supreme judge of my own conduct, and in the words of Kant,
I will not in my own person violate the dignity of humanity.
THE MORE ENDURING SOCIAL INSTINCTS CONQUER THE LESS PERSISTENT INSTINCTS.
We have not, however, as yet considered the main point, on which, from our
present point of view, the whole question of the moral sense turns. Why should a
man feel that he ought to obey one instinctive desire rather than another? Why
is he bitterly regretful, if he has yielded to a strong sense of
self-preservation, and has not risked his life to save that of a fellow-
creature? or why does he regret having stolen food from hunger?
It is evident in the first place, that with mankind the instinctive impulses
have different degrees of strength; a savage will risk his own life to save that
of a member of the same community, but will be wholly indifferent about a
stranger: a young and timid mother urged by the maternal instinct will, without
a moment's hesitation, run the greatest danger for her own infant, but not for a
mere fellow-creature. Nevertheless many a civilised man, or even boy, who never
before risked his life for another, but full of courage and sympathy, has
disregarded the instinct of self-preservation, and plunged at once into a
torrent to save a drowning man, though a stranger. In this case man is impelled
by the same instinctive motive, which made the heroic little American monkey,
formerly described, save his keeper, by attacking the great and dreaded baboon.
Such actions as the above appear to be the simple result of the greater strength
of the social or maternal instincts rather than that of any other instinct or
motive; for they are performed too instantaneously for reflection, or for
pleasure or pain to be felt at the time; though, if prevented by any cause,
distress or even misery might be felt. In a timid man, on the other hand, the
instinct of self-preservation might be so strong, that he would be unable to
force himself to run any such risk, perhaps not even for his own child.
I am aware that some persons maintain that actions performed impulsively, as
in the above cases, do not come under the dominion of the moral sense, and
cannot be called moral. They confine this term to actions done deliberately,
after a victory over opposing desires, or when prompted by some exalted motive.
But it appears scarcely possible to draw any clear line of distinction of this
kind. (25. I refer here to the distinction between what has been called MATERIAL
and FORMAL morality. I am glad to find that Professor Huxley ('Critiques and
Addresses,' 1873, p. 287) takes the same view on this subject as I do. Mr.
Leslie Stephen remarks ('Essays on Freethinking and Plain Speaking,' 1873, p.
83), "the metaphysical distinction, between material and formal morality is
as irrelevant as other such distinctions.") As far as exalted motives are
concerned, many instances have been recorded of savages, destitute of any
feeling of general benevolence towards mankind, and not guided by any religious
motive, who have deliberately sacrificed their lives as prisoners(26. I have
given one such case, namely of three Patagonian Indians who preferred being
shot, one after the other, to betraying the plans of their companions in war
('Journal of Researches,' 1845, p. 103).), rather than betray their comrades;
and surely their conduct ought to be considered as moral. As far as
deliberation, and the victory over opposing motives are concerned, animals may
be seen doubting between opposed instincts, in rescuing their offspring or
comrades from danger; yet their actions, though done for the good of others, are
not called moral. Moreover, anything performed very often by us, will at last be
done without deliberation or hesitation, and can then hardly be distinguished
from an instinct; yet surely no one will pretend that such an action ceases to
be moral. On the contrary, we all feel that an act cannot be considered as
perfect, or as performed in the most noble manner, unless it be done
impulsively, without deliberation or effort, in the same manner as by a man in
whom the requisite qualities are innate. He who is forced to overcome his fear
or want of sympathy before he acts, deserves, however, in one way higher credit
than the man whose innate disposition leads him to a good act without effort. As
we cannot distinguish between motives, we rank all actions of a certain class as
moral, if performed by a moral being. A moral being is one who is capable of
comparing his past and future actions or motives, and of approving or
disapproving of them. We have no reason to suppose that any of the lower animals
have this capacity; therefore, when a Newfoundland dog drags a child out of the
water, or a monkey faces danger to rescue its comrade, or takes charge of an
orphan monkey, we do not call its conduct moral. But in the case of man, who
alone can with certainty be ranked as a moral being, actions of a certain class
are called moral, whether performed deliberately, after a struggle with opposing
motives, or impulsively through instinct, or from the effects of slowly-gained
habit.
But to return to our more immediate subject. Although some instincts are more
powerful than others, and thus lead to corresponding actions, yet it is
untenable, that in man the social instincts (including the love of praise and
fear of blame) possess greater strength, or have, through long habit, acquired
greater strength than the instincts of self-preservation, hunger, lust,
vengeance, etc. Why then does man regret, even though trying to banish such
regret, that he has followed the one natural impulse rather than the other; and
why does he further feel that he ought to regret his conduct? Man in this
respect differs profoundly from the lower animals. Nevertheless we can, I think,
see with some degree of clearness the reason of this difference.
Man, from the activity of his mental faculties, cannot avoid reflection: past
impressions and images are incessantly and clearly passing through his mind. Now
with those animals which live permanently in a body, the social instincts are
ever present and persistent. Such animals are always ready to utter the
danger-signal, to defend the community, and to give aid to their fellows in
accordance with their habits; they feel at all times, without the stimulus of
any special passion or desire, some degree of love and sympathy for them; they
are unhappy if long separated from them, and always happy to be again in their
company. So it is with ourselves. Even when we are quite alone, how often do we
think with pleasure or pain of what others think of us,--of their imagined
approbation or disapprobation; and this all follows from sympathy, a fundamental
element of the social instincts. A man who possessed no trace of such instincts
would be an unnatural monster. On the other hand, the desire to satisfy hunger,
or any passion such as vengeance, is in its nature temporary, and can for a time
be fully satisfied. Nor is it easy, perhaps hardly possible, to call up with
complete vividness the feeling, for instance, of hunger; nor indeed, as has
often been remarked, of any suffering. The instinct of self- preservation is not
felt except in the presence of danger; and many a coward has thought himself
brave until he has met his enemy face to face. The wish for another man's
property is perhaps as persistent a desire as any that can be named; but even in
this case the satisfaction of actual possession is generally a weaker feeling
than the desire: many a thief, if not a habitual one, after success has wondered
why he stole some article. (27. Enmity or hatred seems also to be a highly
persistent feeling, perhaps more so than any other that can be named. Envy is
defined as hatred of another for some excellence or success; and Bacon insists
(Essay ix.), "Of all other affections envy is the most importune and
continual." Dogs are very apt to hate both strange men and strange dogs,
especially if they live near at hand, but do not belong to the same family,
tribe, or clan; this feeling would thus seem to be innate, and is certainly a
most persistent one. It seems to be the complement and converse of the true
social instinct. From what we hear of savages, it would appear that something of
the same kind holds good with them. If this be so, it would be a small step in
any one to transfer such feelings to any member of the same tribe if he had done
him an injury and had become his enemy. Nor is it probable that the primitive
conscience would reproach a man for injuring his enemy; rather it would reproach
him, if he had not revenged himself. To do good in return for evil, to love your
enemy, is a height of morality to which it may be doubted whether the social
instincts would, by themselves, have ever led us. It is necessary that these
instincts, together with sympathy, should have been highly cultivated and
extended by the aid of reason, instruction, and the love or fear of God, before
any such golden rule would ever be thought of and obeyed.)
A man cannot prevent past impressions often repassing through his mind; he
will thus be driven to make a comparison between the impressions of past hunger,
vengeance satisfied, or danger shunned at other men's cost, with the almost
ever-present instinct of sympathy, and with his early knowledge of what others
consider as praiseworthy or blameable. This knowledge cannot be banished from
his mind, and from instinctive sympathy is esteemed of great moment. He will
then feel as if he had been baulked in following a present instinct or habit,
and this with all animals causes dissatisfaction, or even misery.
The above case of the swallow affords an illustration, though of a reversed
nature, of a temporary though for the time strongly persistent instinct
conquering another instinct, which is usually dominant over all others. At the
proper season these birds seem all day long to be impressed with the desire to
migrate; their habits change; they become restless, are noisy and congregate in
flocks. Whilst the mother-bird is feeding, or brooding over her nestlings, the
maternal instinct is probably stronger than the migratory; but the instinct
which is the more persistent gains the victory, and at last, at a moment when
her young ones are not in sight, she takes flight and deserts them. When arrived
at the end of her long journey, and the migratory instinct has ceased to act,
what an agony of remorse the bird would feel, if, from being endowed with great
mental activity, she could not prevent the image constantly passing through her
mind, of her young ones perishing in the bleak north from cold and hunger.
At the moment of action, man will no doubt be apt to follow the stronger
impulse; and though this may occasionally prompt him to the noblest deeds, it
will more commonly lead him to gratify his own desires at the expense of other
men. But after their gratification when past and weaker impressions are judged
by the ever-enduring social instinct, and by his deep regard for the good
opinion of his fellows, retribution will surely come. He will then feel remorse,
repentance, regret, or shame; this latter feeling, however, relates almost
exclusively to the judgment of others. He will consequently resolve more or less
firmly to act differently for the future; and this is conscience; for conscience
looks backwards, and serves as a guide for the future.
The nature and strength of the feelings which we call regret, shame,
repentance or remorse, depend apparently not only on the strength of the
violated instinct, but partly on the strength of the temptation, and often still
more on the judgment of our fellows. How far each man values the appreciation of
others, depends on the strength of his innate or acquired feeling of sympathy;
and on his own capacity for reasoning out the remote consequences of his acts.
Another element is most important, although not necessary, the reverence or fear
of the Gods, or Spirits believed in by each man: and this applies especially in
cases of remorse. Several critics have objected that though some slight regret
or repentance may be explained by the view advocated in this chapter, it is
impossible thus to account for the soul-shaking feeling of remorse. But I can
see little force in this objection. My critics do not define what they mean by
remorse, and I can find no definition implying more than an overwhelming sense
of repentance. Remorse seems to bear the same relation to repentance, as rage
does to anger, or agony to pain. It is far from strange that an instinct so
strong and so generally admired, as maternal love, should, if disobeyed, lead to
the deepest misery, as soon as the impression of the past cause of disobedience
is weakened. Even when an action is opposed to no special instinct, merely to
know that our friends and equals despise us for it is enough to cause great
misery. Who can doubt that the refusal to fight a duel through fear has caused
many men an agony of shame? Many a Hindoo, it is said, has been stirred to the
bottom of his soul by having partaken of unclean food. Here is another case of
what must, I think, be called remorse. Dr. Landor acted as a magistrate in West
Australia, and relates (28. 'Insanity in Relation to Law,' Ontario, United
States, 1871, p. 1.), that a native on his farm, after losing one of his wives
from disease, came and said that, "he was going to a distant tribe to spear
a woman, to satisfy his sense of duty to his wife. I told him that if he did so,
I would send him to prison for life. He remained about the farm for some months,
but got exceedingly thin, and complained that he could not rest or eat, that his
wife's spirit was haunting him, because he had not taken a life for hers. I was
inexorable, and assured him that nothing should save him if he did."
Nevertheless the man disappeared for more than a year, and then returned in high
condition; and his other wife told Dr. Landor that her husband had taken the
life of a woman belonging to a distant tribe; but it was impossible to obtain
legal evidence of the act. The breach of a rule held sacred by the tribe, will
thus, as it seems, give rise to the deepest feelings,--and this quite apart from
the social instincts, excepting in so far as the rule is grounded on the
judgment of the community. How so many strange superstitions have arisen
throughout the world we know not; nor can we tell how some real and great
crimes, such as incest, have come to be held in an abhorrence (which is not
however quite universal) by the lowest savages. It is even doubtful whether in
some tribes incest would be looked on with greater horror, than would the
marriage of a man with a woman bearing the same name, though not a relation.
"To violate this law is a crime which the Australians hold in the greatest
abhorrence, in this agreeing exactly with certain tribes of North America. When
the question is put in either district, is it worse to kill a girl of a foreign
tribe, or to marry a girl of one's own, an answer just opposite to ours would be
given without hesitation." (29. E.B. Tylor, in 'Contemporary Review,' April
1873, p. 707.) We may, therefore, reject the belief, lately insisted on by some
writers, that the abhorrence of incest is due to our possessing a special
God-implanted conscience. On the whole it is intelligible, that a man urged by
so powerful a sentiment as remorse, though arising as above explained, should be
led to act in a manner, which he has been taught to believe serves as an
expiation, such as delivering himself up to justice.
Man prompted by his conscience, will through long habit acquire such perfect
self-command, that his desires and passions will at last yield instantly and
without a struggle to his social sympathies and instincts, including his feeling
for the judgment of his fellows. The still hungry, or the still revengeful man
will not think of stealing food, or of wreaking his vengeance. It is possible,
or as we shall hereafter see, even probable, that the habit of self-command may,
like other habits, be inherited. Thus at last man comes to feel, through
acquired and perhaps inherited habit, that it is best for him to obey his more
persistent impulses. The imperious word "ought" seems merely to imply
the consciousness of the existence of a rule of conduct, however it may have
originated. Formerly it must have been often vehemently urged that an insulted
gentleman OUGHT to fight a duel. We even say that a pointer OUGHT to point, and
a retriever to retrieve game. If they fail to do so, they fail in their duty and
act wrongly.
If any desire or instinct leading to an action opposed to the good of others
still appears, when recalled to mind, as strong as, or stronger than, the social
instinct, a man will feel no keen regret at having followed it; but he will be
conscious that if his conduct were known to his fellows, it would meet with
their disapprobation; and few are so destitute of sympathy as not to feel
discomfort when this is realised. If he has no such sympathy, and if his desires
leading to bad actions are at the time strong, and when recalled are not
over-mastered by the persistent social instincts, and the judgment of others,
then he is essentially a bad man (30. Dr. Prosper Despine, in his Psychologie
Naturelle, 1868 (tom. i. p. 243; tom. ii. p. 169) gives many curious cases of
the worst criminals, who apparently have been entirely destitute of
conscience.); and the sole restraining motive left is the fear of punishment,
and the conviction that in the long run it would be best for his own selfish
interests to regard the good of others rather than his own.
It is obvious that every one may with an easy conscience gratify his own
desires, if they do not interfere with his social instincts, that is with the
good of others; but in order to be quite free from self-reproach, or at least of
anxiety, it is almost necessary for him to avoid the disapprobation, whether
reasonable or not, of his fellow-men. Nor must he break through the fixed habits
of his life, especially if these are supported by reason; for if he does, he
will assuredly feel dissatisfaction. He must likewise avoid the reprobation of
the one God or gods in whom, according to his knowledge or superstition, he may
believe; but in this case the additional fear of divine punishment often
supervenes.
THE STRICTLY SOCIAL VIRTUES AT FIRST ALONE REGARDED.
The above view of the origin and nature of the moral sense, which tells us
what we ought to do, and of the conscience which reproves us if we disobey it,
accords well with what we see of the early and undeveloped condition of this
faculty in mankind. The virtues which must be practised, at least generally, by
rude men, so that they may associate in a body, are those which are still
recognised as the most important. But they are practised almost exclusively in
relation to the men of the same tribe; and their opposites are not regarded as
crimes in relation to the men of other tribes. No tribe could hold together if
murder, robbery, treachery, etc., were common; consequently such crimes within
the limits of the same tribe "are branded with everlasting infamy"
(31. See an able article in the 'North British Review,' 1867, p. 395. See also
Mr. W. Bagehot's articles on the Importance of Obedience and Coherence to
Primitive Man, in the 'Fortnightly Review,' 1867, p. 529, and 1868, p. 457,
etc.); but excite no such sentiment beyond these limits. A North-American Indian
is well pleased with himself, and is honoured by others, when he scalps a man of
another tribe; and a Dyak cuts off the head of an unoffending person, and dries
it as a trophy. The murder of infants has prevailed on the largest scale
throughout the world (32. The fullest account which I have met with is by Dr.
Gerland, in his 'Ueber den Aussterben der Naturvolker,' 1868; but I shall have
to recur to the subject of infanticide in a future chapter.), and has met with
no reproach; but infanticide, especially of females, has been thought to be good
for the tribe, or at least not injurious. Suicide during former times was not
generally considered as a crime (33. See the very interesting discussion on
suicide in Lecky's 'History of European Morals,' vol. i. 1869, p. 223. With
respect to savages, Mr. Winwood Reade informs me that the negroes of West Africa
often commit suicide. It is well known how common it was amongst the miserable
aborigines of South America after the Spanish conquest. For New Zealand, see the
voyage of the "Novara," and for the Aleutian Islands, Muller, as
quoted by Houzeau, 'Les Facultes Mentales,' etc., tom. ii. p. 136.), but rather,
from the courage displayed, as an honourable act; and it is still practised by
some semi- civilised and savage nations without reproach, for it does not
obviously concern others of the tribe. It has been recorded that an Indian Thug
conscientiously regretted that he had not robbed and strangled as many
travellers as did his father before him. In a rude state of civilisation the
robbery of strangers is, indeed, generally considered as honourable.
Slavery, although in some ways beneficial during ancient times (34. See Mr.
Bagehot, 'Physics and Politics,' 1872, p. 72.), is a great crime; yet it was not
so regarded until quite recently, even by the most civilised nations. And this
was especially the case, because the slaves belonged in general to a race
different from that of their masters. As barbarians do not regard the opinion of
their women, wives are commonly treated like slaves. Most savages are utterly
indifferent to the sufferings of strangers, or even delight in witnessing them.
It is well known that the women and children of the North-American Indians aided
in torturing their enemies. Some savages take a horrid pleasure in cruelty to
animals (35. See, for instance, Mr. Hamilton's account of the Kaffirs,
'Anthropological Review,' 1870, p. xv.), and humanity is an unknown virtue.
Nevertheless, besides the family affections, kindness is common, especially
during sickness, between the members of the same tribe, and is sometimes
extended beyond these limits. Mungo Park's touching account of the kindness of
the negro women of the interior to him is well known. Many instances could be
given of the noble fidelity of savages towards each other, but not to strangers;
common experience justifies the maxim of the Spaniard, "Never, never trust
an Indian." There cannot be fidelity without truth; and this fundamental
virtue is not rare between the members of the same tribe: thus Mungo Park heard
the negro women teaching their young children to love the truth. This, again, is
one of the virtues which becomes so deeply rooted in the mind, that it is
sometimes practised by savages, even at a high cost, towards strangers; but to
lie to your enemy has rarely been thought a sin, as the history of modern
diplomacy too plainly shews. As soon as a tribe has a recognised leader,
disobedience becomes a crime, and even abject submission is looked at as a
sacred virtue.
As during rude times no man can be useful or faithful to his tribe without
courage, this quality has universally been placed in the highest rank; and
although in civilised countries a good yet timid man may be far more useful to
the community than a brave one, we cannot help instinctively honouring the
latter above a coward, however benevolent. Prudence, on the other hand, which
does not concern the welfare of others, though a very useful virtue, has never
been highly esteemed. As no man can practise the virtues necessary for the
welfare of his tribe without self-sacrifice, self- command, and the power of
endurance, these qualities have been at all times highly and most justly valued.
The American savage voluntarily submits to the most horrid tortures without a
groan, to prove and strengthen his fortitude and courage; and we cannot help
admiring him, or even an Indian Fakir, who, from a foolish religious motive,
swings suspended by a hook buried in his flesh.
The other so-called self-regarding virtues, which do not obviously, though
they may really, affect the welfare of the tribe, have never been esteemed by
savages, though now highly appreciated by civilised nations. The greatest
intemperance is no reproach with savages. Utter licentiousness, and unnatural
crimes, prevail to an astounding extent. (36. Mr. M'Lennan has given ('Primitive
Marriage,' 1865, p. 176) a good collection of facts on this head.) As soon,
however, as marriage, whether polygamous, or monogamous, becomes common,
jealousy will lead to the inculcation of female virtue; and this, being
honoured, will tend to spread to the unmarried females. How slowly it spreads to
the male sex, we see at the present day. Chastity eminently requires
self-command; therefore it has been honoured from a very early period in the
moral history of civilised man. As a consequence of this, the senseless practice
of celibacy has been ranked from a remote period as a virtue. (38. Lecky,
'History of European Morals,' vol. i. 1869, p. 109.) The hatred of indecency,
which appears to us so natural as to be thought innate, and which is so valuable
an aid to chastity, is a modern virtue, appertaining exclusively, as Sir G.
Staunton remarks (38. 'Embassy to China,' vol. ii. p. 348.), to civilised life.
This is shewn by the ancient religious rites of various nations, by the drawings
on the walls of Pompeii, and by the practices of many savages.
We have now seen that actions are regarded by savages, and were probably so
regarded by primeval man, as good or bad, solely as they obviously affect the
welfare of the tribe,--not that of the species, nor that of an individual member
of the tribe. This conclusion agrees well with the belief that the so-called
moral sense is aboriginally derived from the social instincts, for both relate
at first exclusively to the community.
The chief causes of the low morality of savages, as judged by our standard,
are, firstly, the confinement of sympathy to the same tribe. Secondly, powers of
reasoning insufficient to recognise the bearing of many virtues, especially of
the self-regarding virtues, on the general welfare of the tribe. Savages, for
instance, fail to trace the multiplied evils consequent on a want of temperance,
chastity, etc. And, thirdly, weak power of self-command; for this power has not
been strengthened through long-continued, perhaps inherited, habit, instruction
and religion.
I have entered into the above details on the immorality of savages (39. See
on this subject copious evidence in Chap. vii. of Sir J. Lubbock, 'Origin of
Civilisation,' 1870.), because some authors have recently taken a high view of
their moral nature, or have attributed most of their crimes to mistaken
benevolence. (40. For instance Lecky, 'History of European Morals,' vol. i. p.
124.) These authors appear to rest their conclusion on savages possessing those
virtues which are serviceable, or even necessary, for the existence of the
family and of the tribe,--qualities which they undoubtedly do possess, and often
in a high degree.
CONCLUDING REMARKS.
It was assumed formerly by philosophers of the derivative (41. This term is
used in an able article in the 'Westminster Review,' Oct. 1869, p. 498. For the
"Greatest happiness principle," see J.S. Mill, 'Utilitarianism,' p.
17.) school of morals that the foundation of morality lay in a form of
Selfishness; but more recently the "Greatest happiness principle" has
been brought prominently forward. It is, however, more correct to speak of the
latter principle as the standard, and not as the motive of conduct.
Nevertheless, all the authors whose works I have consulted, with a few
exceptions (42. Mill recognises ('System of Logic,' vol. ii. p. 422) in the
clearest manner, that actions may be performed through habit without the
anticipation of pleasure. Mr. H. Sidgwick also, in his Essay on Pleasure and
Desire ('The Contemporary Review,' April 1872, p. 671), remarks: "To sum
up, in contravention of the doctrine that our conscious active impulses are
always directed towards the production of agreeable sensations in ourselves, I
would maintain that we find everywhere in consciousness extra-regarding impulse,
directed towards something that is not pleasure; that in many cases the impulse
is so far incompatible with the self-regarding that the two do not easily
co-exist in the same moment of consciousness." A dim feeling that our
impulses do not by any means always arise from any contemporaneous or
anticipated pleasure, has, I cannot but think, been one chief cause of the
acceptance of the intuitive theory of morality, and of the rejection of the
utilitarian or "Greatest happiness" theory. With respect to the latter
theory the standard and the motive of conduct have no doubt often been confused,
but they are really in some degree blended.), write as if there must be a
distinct motive for every action, and that this must be associated with some
pleasure or displeasure. But man seems often to act impulsively, that is from
instinct or long habit, without any consciousness of pleasure, in the same
manner as does probably a bee or ant, when it blindly follows its instincts.
Under circumstances of extreme peril, as during a fire, when a man endeavours to
save a fellow-creature without a moment's hesitation, he can hardly feel
pleasure; and still less has he time to reflect on the dissatisfaction which he
might subsequently experience if he did not make the attempt. Should he
afterwards reflect over his own conduct, he would feel that there lies within
him an impulsive power widely different from a search after pleasure or
happiness; and this seems to be the deeply planted social instinct.
In the case of the lower animals it seems much more appropriate to speak of
their social instincts, as having been developed for the general good rather
than for the general happiness of the species. The term, general good, may be
defined as the rearing of the greatest number of individuals in full vigour and
health, with all their faculties perfect, under the conditions to which they are
subjected. As the social instincts both of man and the lower animals have no
doubt been developed by nearly the same steps, it would be advisable, if found
practicable, to use the same definition in both cases, and to take as the
standard of morality, the general good or welfare of the community, rather than
the general happiness; but this definition would perhaps require some limitation
on account of political ethics.
When a man risks his life to save that of a fellow-creature, it seems also
more correct to say that he acts for the general good, rather than for the
general happiness of mankind. No doubt the welfare and the happiness of the
individual usually coincide; and a contented, happy tribe will flourish better
than one that is discontented and unhappy. We have seen that even at an early
period in the history of man, the expressed wishes of the community will have
naturally influenced to a large extent the conduct of each member; and as all
wish for happiness, the "greatest happiness principle" will have
become a most important secondary guide and object; the social instinct,
however, together with sympathy (which leads to our regarding the approbation
and disapprobation of others), having served as the primary impulse and guide.
Thus the reproach is removed of laying the foundation of the noblest part of our
nature in the base principle of selfishness; unless, indeed, the satisfaction
which every animal feels, when it follows its proper instincts, and the
dissatisfaction felt when prevented, be called selfish.
The wishes and opinions of the members of the same community, expressed at
first orally, but later by writing also, either form the sole guides of our
conduct, or greatly reinforce the social instincts; such opinions, however, have
sometimes a tendency directly opposed to these instincts. This latter fact is
well exemplified by the LAW OF HONOUR, that is, the law of the opinion of our
equals, and not of all our countrymen. The breach of this law, even when the
breach is known to be strictly accordant with true morality, has caused many a
man more agony than a real crime. We recognise the same influence in the burning
sense of shame which most of us have felt, even after the interval of years,
when calling to mind some accidental breach of a trifling, though fixed, rule of
etiquette. The judgment of the community will generally be guided by some rude
experience of what is best in the long run for all the members; but this
judgment will not rarely err from ignorance and weak powers of reasoning. Hence
the strangest customs and superstitions, in complete opposition to the true
welfare and happiness of mankind, have become all-powerful throughout the world.
We see this in the horror felt by a Hindoo who breaks his caste, and in many
other such cases. It would be difficult to distinguish between the remorse felt
by a Hindoo who has yielded to the temptation of eating unclean food, from that
felt after committing a theft; but the former would probably be the more severe.
How so many absurd rules of conduct, as well as so many absurd religious
beliefs, have originated, we do not know; nor how it is that they have become,
in all quarters of the world, so deeply impressed on the mind of men; but it is
worthy of remark that a belief constantly inculcated during the early years of
life, whilst the brain is impressible, appears to acquire almost the nature of
an instinct; and the very essence of an instinct is that it is followed
independently of reason. Neither can we say why certain admirable virtues, such
as the love of truth, are much more highly appreciated by some savage tribes
than by others (43. Good instances are given by Mr. Wallace in 'Scientific
Opinion,' Sept. 15, 1869; and more fully in his 'Contributions to the Theory of
Natural Selection,' 1870, p. 353.); nor, again, why similar differences prevail
even amongst highly civilised nations. Knowing how firmly fixed many strange
customs and superstitions have become, we need feel no surprise that the self-
regarding virtues, supported as they are by reason, should now appear to us so
natural as to be thought innate, although they were not valued by man in his
early condition.
Not withstanding many sources of doubt, man can generally and readily
distinguish between the higher and lower moral rules. The higher are founded on
the social instincts, and relate to the welfare of others. They are supported by
the approbation of our fellow-men and by reason. The lower rules, though some of
them when implying self-sacrifice hardly deserve to be called lower, relate
chiefly to self, and arise from public opinion, matured by experience and
cultivation; for they are not practised by rude tribes.
As man advances in civilisation, and small tribes are united into larger
communities, the simplest reason would tell each individual that he ought to
extend his social instincts and sympathies to all the members of the same
nation, though personally unknown to him. This point being once reached, there
is only an artificial barrier to prevent his sympathies extending to the men of
all nations and races. If, indeed, such men are separated from him by great
differences in appearance or habits, experience unfortunately shews us how long
it is, before we look at them as our fellow-creatures. Sympathy beyond the
confines of man, that is, humanity to the lower animals, seems to be one of the
latest moral acquisitions. It is apparently unfelt by savages, except towards
their pets. How little the old Romans knew of it is shewn by their abhorrent
gladiatorial exhibitions. The very idea of humanity, as far as I could observe,
was new to most of the Gauchos of the Pampas. This virtue, one of the noblest
with which man is endowed, seems to arise incidentally from our sympathies
becoming more tender and more widely diffused, until they are extended to all
sentient beings. As soon as this virtue is honoured and practised by some few
men, it spreads through instruction and example to the young, and eventually
becomes incorporated in public opinion.
The highest possible stage in moral culture is when we recognise that we
ought to control our thoughts, and "not even in inmost thought to think
again the sins that made the past so pleasant to us." (44. Tennyson, Idylls
of the King, p. 244.) Whatever makes any bad action familiar to the mind,
renders its performance by so much the easier. As Marcus Aurelius long ago said,
"Such as are thy habitual thoughts, such also will be the character of thy
mind; for the soul is dyed by the thoughts." (45. 'The Thoughts of the
Emperor M. Aurelius Antoninus,' English translation, 2nd edit., 1869. p. 112.
Marcus Aurelius ws born A.D. 121.)
Our great philosopher, Herbert Spencer, has recently explained his views on
the moral sense. He says (46. Letter to Mr. Mill in Bain's 'Mental and Moral
Science,' 1868, p. 722.), "I believe that the experiences of utility
organised and consolidated through all past generations of the human race, have
been producing corresponding modifications, which, by continued transmission and
accumulation, have become in us certain faculties of moral intuition--certain
emotions responding to right and wrong conduct, which have no apparent basis in
the individual experiences of utility." There is not the least inherent
improbability, as it seems to me, in virtuous tendencies being more or less
strongly inherited; for, not to mention the various dispositions and habits
transmitted by many of our domestic animals to their offspring, I have heard of
authentic cases in which a desire to steal and a tendency to lie appeared to run
in families of the upper ranks; and as stealing is a rare crime in the wealthy
classes, we can hardly account by accidental coincidence for the tendency
occurring in two or three members of the same family. If bad tendencies are
transmitted, it is probable that good ones are likewise transmitted. That the
state of the body by affecting the brain, has great influence on the moral
tendencies is known to most of those who have suffered from chronic derangements
of the digestion or liver. The same fact is likewise shewn by the
"perversion or destruction of the moral sense being often one of the
earliest symptoms of mental derangement" (47. Maudsley, 'Body and Mind,'
1870, p. 60.); and insanity is notoriously often inherited. Except through the
principle of the transmission of moral tendencies, we cannot understand the
differences believed to exist in this respect between the various races of
mankind.
Even the partial transmission of virtuous tendencies would be an immense
assistance to the primary impulse derived directly and indirectly from the
social instincts. Admitting for a moment that virtuous tendencies are inherited,
it appears probable, at least in such cases as chastity, temperance, humanity to
animals, etc., that they become first impressed on the mental organization
through habit, instruction and example, continued during several generations in
the same family, and in a quite subordinate degree, or not at all, by the
individuals possessing such virtues having succeeded best in the struggle for
life. My chief source of doubt with respect to any such inheritance, is that
senseless customs, superstitions, and tastes, such as the horror of a Hindoo for
unclean food, ought on the same principle to be transmitted. I have not met with
any evidence in support of the transmission of superstitious customs or
senseless habits, although in itself it is perhaps not less probable than that
animals should acquire inherited tastes for certain kinds of food or fear of
certain foes.
Finally the social instincts, which no doubt were acquired by man as by the
lower animals for the good of the community, will from the first have given to
him some wish to aid his fellows, some feeling of sympathy, and have compelled
him to regard their approbation and disapprobation. Such impulses will have
served him at a very early period as a rude rule of right and wrong. But as man
gradually advanced in intellectual power, and was enabled to trace the more
remote consequences of his actions; as he acquired sufficient knowledge to
reject baneful customs and superstitions; as he regarded more and more, not only
the welfare, but the happiness of his fellow-men; as from habit, following on
beneficial experience, instruction and example, his sympathies became more
tender and widely diffused, extending to men of all races, to the imbecile,
maimed, and other useless members of society, and finally to the lower
animals,--so would the standard of his morality rise higher and higher. And it
is admitted by moralists of the derivative school and by some intuitionists,
that the standard of morality has risen since an early period in the history of
man. (48. A writer in the 'North British Review' (July 1869, p. 531), well
capable of forming a sound judgment, expresses himself strongly in favour of
this conclusion. Mr. Lecky ('History of Morals,' vol. i. p. 143) seems to a
certain extent to coincide therein.)
As a struggle may sometimes be seen going on between the various instincts of
the lower animals, it is not surprising that there should be a struggle in man
between his social instincts, with their derived virtues, and his lower, though
momentarily stronger impulses or desires. This, as Mr. Galton (49. See his
remarkable work on 'Hereditary Genius,' 1869, p. 349. The Duke of Argyll
('Primeval Man,' 1869, p. 188) has some good remarks on the contest in man's
nature between right and wrong.) has remarked, is all the less surprising, as
man has emerged from a state of barbarism within a comparatively recent period.
After having yielded to some temptation we feel a sense of dissatisfaction,
shame, repentance, or remorse, analogous to the feelings caused by other
powerful instincts or desires, when left unsatisfied or baulked. We compare the
weakened impression of a past temptation with the ever present social instincts,
or with habits, gained in early youth and strengthened during our whole lives,
until they have become almost as strong as instincts. If with the temptation
still before us we do not yield, it is because either the social instinct or
some custom is at the moment predominant, or because we have learnt that it will
appear to us hereafter the stronger, when compared with the weakened impression
of the temptation, and we realise that its violation would cause us suffering.
Looking to future generations, there is no cause to fear that the social
instincts will grow weaker, and we may expect that virtuous habits will grow
stronger, becoming perhaps fixed by inheritance. In this case the struggle
between our higher and lower impulses will be less severe, and virtue will be
triumphant.
SUMMARY OF THE LAST TWO CHAPTERS.
There can be no doubt that the difference between the mind of the lowest man
and that of the highest animal is immense. An anthropomorphous ape, if he could
take a dispassionate view of his own case, would admit that though he could form
an artful plan to plunder a garden--though he could use stones for fighting or
for breaking open nuts, yet that the thought of fashioning a stone into a tool
was quite beyond his scope. Still less, as he would admit, could he follow out a
train of metaphysical reasoning, or solve a mathematical problem, or reflect on
God, or admire a grand natural scene. Some apes, however, would probably declare
that they could and did admire the beauty of the coloured skin and fur of their
partners in marriage. They would admit, that though they could make other apes
understand by cries some of their perceptions and simpler wants, the notion of
expressing definite ideas by definite sounds had never crossed their minds. They
might insist that they were ready to aid their fellow-apes of the same troop in
many ways, to risk their lives for them, and to take charge of their orphans;
but they would be forced to acknowledge that disinterested love for all living
creatures, the most noble attribute of man, was quite beyond their
comprehension.
Nevertheless the difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great
as it is, certainly is one of degree and not of kind. We have seen that the
senses and intuitions, the various emotions and faculties, such as love, memory,
attention, curiosity, imitation, reason, etc., of which man boasts, may be found
in an incipient, or even sometimes in a well-developed condition, in the lower
animals. They are also capable of some inherited improvement, as we see in the
domestic dog compared with the wolf or jackal. If it could be proved that
certain high mental powers, such as the formation of general concepts,
self-consciousness, etc., were absolutely peculiar to man, which seems extremely
doubtful, it is not improbable that these qualities are merely the incidental
results of other highly-advanced intellectual faculties; and these again mainly
the result of the continued use of a perfect language. At what age does the
new-born infant possess the power of abstraction, or become self-conscious, and
reflect on its own existence? We cannot answer; nor can we answer in regard to
the ascending organic scale. The half-art, half-instinct of language still bears
the stamp of its gradual evolution. The ennobling belief in God is not universal
with man; and the belief in spiritual agencies naturally follows from other
mental powers. The moral sense perhaps affords the best and highest distinction
between man and the lower animals; but I need say nothing on this head, as I
have so lately endeavoured to shew that the social instincts,--the prime
principle of man's moral constitution (50. 'The Thoughts of Marcus Aurelius,'
etc., p. 139.)--with the aid of active intellectual powers and the effects of
habit, naturally lead to the golden rule, "As ye would that men should do
to you, do ye to them likewise;" and this lies at the foundation of
morality.
In the next chapter I shall make some few remarks on the probable steps and
means by which the several mental and moral faculties of man have been gradually
evolved. That such evolution is at least possible, ought not to be denied, for
we daily see these faculties developing in every infant; and we may trace a
perfect gradation from the mind of an utter idiot, lower than that of an animal
low in the scale, to the mind of a Newton.