Research Methods

THE formidable challenge faced by educational leaders in post-Socialist Poland far exceeded that of their educational forebears. They did not have to wrestle with two centuries of historical discontinuity nor did they suffer the impediments of a social reformation from an antithetical totalitarian regime to a democratic society. Post-Socialist educational reform in Poland focused on curriculum, organization, administration, finance, and teacher training. The reform process was difficult and proceeded in several directions. Political confusion and ideological wrangling left the country without unifying and guiding principles for education. The adoption of a national constitution was continually postponed by divisive debate concerning, among other things, the nature of democracy and the way to build a democratic society. Consequently, this research required the study of two related topics in light of Poland’s history, culture, inherited educational infra-structure, economy, and move towards democratic statehood: (a) It analyzed, synthesized, and evaluated social and philosophical foundations of democratic education applicable to higher education in Poland; (b) It constructed a community college model on these foundations. This community college model contributed to the building of a democratic society by providing a plan for expanding educational opportunity while concurrently safeguarding academic excellence in the nation's institutes of higher learning. Furthermore, the model did all this while optimizing existing resources. 

Need for the Study

The Polish National Ministry of Education was fully cognizant of the need to expand educational opportunity. Opening up possibilities for higher education to large number of youth was a prerequisite to future economic and social development. "We find it necessary to expand the range of available forms of higher education" (1991, p. 15).

Vice Minister of Higher Education in Warsaw, Roman Duda, spoke of this problem of expanding access. In 1992 less than 10% of the college age population enrolled in post-secondary education. According to Duda, (1992) this was 1/2 the level for Europe and 1/4 the level of the United States and it "reflects the government's neglect of higher education."

Writing about the status of Polish higher education in the European Journal of Education, Elizbieta Wnuk-Lipinska confirmed Duda's observation that only 10% of Polish secondary school graduates entered the higher education system. If we "employ Martin Trow's definition that there is mass education when at least 15% of all young people at secondary school graduation age are admitted to higher education institutions . . . [it may be] assumed that in this [the Polish] situation students are practically hand picked" (1990, p. 409).

The Polish National Ministry of Education, aware of the problems to democracy caused by limited enrollments, made a liberal enrollment projection for mass higher education exceeding the 15% level indicated by Trow. "It is necessary to increase the number of students at higher education institutions. Attainment of the 20% index will necessitate the growth of . . . the existing network of higher education" (1991, p.15).

The development of community universities in Warsaw and Krakow exemplified the type of educational innovation necessary to alleviate social problems caused by the transition. Warsaw University implemented a community education program in 1991. It existed to educate local social and political leaders. The purpose of the Local Government and Local Development program administered by the community university, an extension of Warsaw University, was, according to Professor Andrzej Piekara, director of the program, "to make local authorities in Poland more civilized. . . . It will train people professionally and educate them morally" (Stankiewicz-Button, 1991).

The state universities in Krakow and Poznan developed similar programs. The Krakow program was perhaps the most extensive. It offered a "four year, structured, general education program" (Wulff, 1992, p. 66). Courses included medicine, health and disease, Polish history and literature, European history and literature, human rights, and ethnic minorities. "Students reported liking the classes and the opportunity to study at the university that was once only a dream" (Wulff, 1992, p. 66). Unfortunately, the community university provided only limited access and educational opportunity--technical training was virtually nonexistent. Because there were only 11 universities operating in urban areas, the bulk of the Polish population was unable to take advantage of the community university. However, with systematic organization, structure, and the design of alternative models, the open university could be remodified into a system of community colleges better able to serve the Polish people.

Poland needed innovative plans and blueprints for the democratization of higher education. Consequently, the National Ministry of Education committed itself to the study of community colleges. As a result, they investigated community colleges in the United States. "This decade [1990-2000] should witness the decision whether Poland is to introduce such new forms of continuous education as ‘open university’ and ‘community college’" (Polish National Ministry of Education 1991, p.18).

The Ministry of National Education's search for viable models led them to the well-planned system of community colleges in the state of Florida. Florida's community colleges also attracted educational leaders from countries such as Russia¾ which established a cooperative effort with the Florida Community College at Jacksonville to organize a community college in Kazan, Russia (Community Colleges for International Development, 1992, pp. 1-42). The search for viable models for the nation of Poland led educational leaders there to Miami-Dade Community College (Weidenthal, 1993, p. 6). According to Weidenthal, Miami Dade's partnership in Poland emerged from the expressed intention of Polish officials to broaden student participation in higher education from 8 percent to 20 percent over the next decade (1993, p. 6).

Aware of this need for community colleges in Poland, the Institute of Higher Education at the University of Florida approved the research undertaken in this dissertation in August 1991. This research proceeded under the auspices of the Director of the Institute of Higher Education, James Wattenbarger, and with the acknowledgment of Mr. Jerzy Wisniewski, the Deputy Minister of Foreign Relations at the National Ministry of Education in Poland. 

Definition of Community College

Short term post-secondary education had many names. Besides the more common names, "community college" and "junior college," the institutions were also known as "two-year college," "city college," "people's college," and "democracy's college" (Cohen & Brawer, 1982, p.5). The title, community college, was adopted in this research. This designation emphasized their territorial community affiliation and distinctive mission.

Their several missions distinguished them from junior colleges with an isthmian function (Koos, 1924) to provide lower division transfer students to upper division universities. Although community colleges had an Isthmian function that integrated both secondary and tertiary education, they had other important missions such as vocational, occupational, and community education.

The community colleges were locally and regionally oriented institutions usually integrated into a state system of education. They served the educational needs of a diverse student body. These educational needs traditionally included "academic transfer preparation, vocational-technical education, continuing education (for adults), remedial education, and community service" (Cohen & Brawer, 1982, p.15). Academic transfer preparation serviced advanced students desiring further higher education beyond the sophomore year. Remedial education serves late bloomers or adults deficient in basic math and language skills but desiring further education. 

Procedures and Methods of Analysis

This dissertation was a continuation of earlier research (Marzak, 1989). Marzak examined in detail the impact of Polish history and culture on the Solidarity social movement, the relationship between church and state under the old regime, and the political and religious environment in post-Socialist Poland. The methodology for this current research included an investigation, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of past and present studies to identify the criteria used to plan and to build community colleges in democratic countries. Additional methodology employed for this study included a policy and a descriptive historical analysis necessary to provide the contextual framework that permitted successful cross-cultural application of these criteria.

To acquire knowledge and understanding of the Polish environment, the research required several visits to higher educational institutions in Poland, the American Embassy in Warsaw, the Polish National Ministry of Education, the Universities of Warsaw and Krakow, and the Lublin Kuratorium (Regional Superintendent of Education). The researcher conducted interviews in Lublin with its president [mayor], with labor leaders at Solidarity headquarters, and with local labor leaders at on-site enterprises in the same city. In addition, the researcher did political studies and earned a diploma in Polish history and culture at the Catholic University in Lublin (KUL). Funding and referrals provided by the Kosciuszko Foundation in New York City sustained the research.

The study required analysis of many different public records. These included

(a) actuarial records consisting of the Statistical Yearbook (Rocznik Statystyczny), demographic data from the Regional Kuratorium, and data from the United Nations;

(b) Political records and legislation promulgated by the Sejm and the Polish Senate, including the Higher Education Act, the Territorial Self Government Act, the Privatization Act, and legislation concerning the role of the Church in education relevant to this study; (c) Government documents including communiqués issued by the National Ministry of Education; and (d) Reports of the Polish mass media, Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty, and numerous international educational journals.

It was necessary to use secondary data analysis to develop community college planning criteria for Poland, since primary data were lacking. Nachmias observed "from a conceptual-substantive point of view, secondary data may be the only source of data available to study certain research problems" (1987, p. 312).

There was very little published research pertaining to community college development in Poland. Therefore, this study relied upon community college development literature utilized in other democratic countries such as the important research undertaken by Koos, Wattenbarger, and Knoell.

In summary, this study was a comparative sociology of education utilizing secondary data, policy analysis, and historical data. The study applied to Poland planning criteria used to construct community colleges in the United States. According to Borg and Gall "The study of a nation's [in this case, the United States] past educational policies provides a valuable basis for understanding its current policy-making activities; for making predictions about the outcomes of these activities; and for suggesting the significance of these activities for policy makers in other countries" (1989. p. 834, italics added). The researcher chose the methodological approach based upon the paucity of educational data and the lack of indigenous community college models in Poland. It was necessary to provide a philosophical foundation before any further research could take place. Quantitative research proved impossible under the circumstances; that is, community colleges do not exist in Poland.

The application of cross-cultural data was an especially difficult procedure. The researcher could not legitimately apply data without a thorough and objective investigation of the foreign milieu. Thus secondary data acquired from community college research undertaken in the United States combined with policy analysis of Polish documents and historical contextual probing of Poland seemed most apropos for the current study. As Nachimas indicated, the secondary analyst must study a wide range of materials covering different areas which may result in a wider scope and depth than are possible with a single primary data research project. "With such secondary analysis, we can better understand the historical context" (1987, p. 312).

As such, the secondary analyst is "more likely to be more exhaustive in his definition of a concept, to think about it not only in accustomed ways, but in all sorts of ways, thereby gaining new insights" (Nachimas, 1987, p. 313).

Finally, this study did not consider administrative problems concerning the location of community colleges, their finance, or community analysis through survey research. All of these will occur in the future if the model is accepted. The sole purpose of this research was the development of a viable foundation model for a community college to serve the people of an emerging democratic society in Poland. Limitations

1. The insufficient availability of educational data limited the research. Kenneth Wulff attested to this fact in his book Education in Poland (1992). He stated in the preface that "Very little material is available on Poland and virtually no material is available in the field of Education."

In the short span of five years, Poland had four prime ministers, the birth of over 100 political parties, a constantly shifting population in the Sejm, and the election of over 50,000 new local government officials. These people were responsible for engendering new statistical and demographic data in Poland. Due to its use as propaganda, the data gathered under the former regime was totally unreliable. Consequently, it had very low objective significance. Because of the demands placed on these new leaders and the constant change of officers and policies, reliable demographic data continued to be difficult to obtain.

2. Another very significant limit on the study was the lack of a written constitution. Serious debate slowed down the essential process of defining the basic philosophical tenets by which Poland would govern itself in the modern world. Therefore, the researcher used a policy analysis of major legislative acts that might or might not have validity after Poland adopts a new constitution.

3. Perhaps the most serious limit on this study was its reliance on secondary data. According to Nachimas (1987), problems may emerge with this type of data "if there is insufficient information . . . to determine potential bias, errors, or problems with internal or external validity" (p. 315).

External criticism was not a limitation in this study. There was no doubt about the authenticity of the documents themselves; all the policy documents were taken from neatly typed originals. However, there could have been undetected problems in the translation of legislative acts.

There was also limited internal criticism since the documents studied were public records stating a policy preference which had the legitimate force of law. However, the mass media reports and, to a lesser extent, the journal articles were subject to internal criticism; the accuracy and worth of statements found in such documents was often debatable. It was difficult to determine bias without first ascertaining the ideological standard of a journal or media publication; even then scientific rigor demanded by the profession probably safeguarded the scholarly journals from this negative scrutiny. However, it was difficult to claim this methodological privilege for the media information. 

Delimitations

1. The researcher delimited the study to the major components of community college planning in democratic societies: access, curricula, and organization.

2. Further delimitations included the study of humanistic and political questions relevant to democratic societies. Economic and technological questions, although important, were not the primary concern of this analysis (the researcher’s primary concern was with democracy not capitalism). There was plenty of material pertaining to the role of education and economic development in Poland. However, Polish people were lacking an understanding of democracy and the role and function of education in a democratic society. Alfred Twardecki (1992) addressed this topic in the Polish Warsaw Voice.

This research was, therefore, appropriately delimited to educational planning and developmental principles relevant to the building of a democratic society in Poland. The administrative design, nature of the curricula (including the types of degrees offered), and the organization of the community colleges were contingent upon these principles. 

Significance of the Study

First, this study advanced educational planning knowledge because it applied, with scientific discretion, accepted criteria for community college development to a country in Eastern Europe--not previously studied. The findings could have wider ramifications for the development of community colleges not only in Poland but in Russia and the Ukraine as well.

Second, this research provided a practical solution to an education problem articulated by educational policy makers in Poland. They had interest in the planning and development of community colleges. The model developed as a result of this research provided a foundation on which to build a viable community college system. The implementation of this model could have major theoretical and practical applications to higher education in Poland. In the end, it might affect human development in the entire region. Organization of the Study

The research was developmental and deductive. It consisted of five major steps, each built upon the other. These steps logically proceeded from an extensive review of the relevant literature and adhered to the following sequence:

1. The research began with an analysis of the historical development of democratic institutions and the concomitant emancipation, enfranchisement, and elevation of working people in Poland to positions of local and national leadership.

2. This was followed by a discriminate study of the philosophical and sociological foundations of education necessary to generate first principles which guide subsequent educational development in emerging democratic societies.

3. The research continued with a study of community college development in the United States. It utilized the well-documented research findings pertaining to development, access, and organization in order to develop practical guidelines based upon the American experience that are important for community colleges in Poland.

4. To implement the results of this research, a detailed study of the Polish environment including an examination of the history of educational reform in Poland, the Communist legacy, and the inherited educational infrastructure was undertaken.

5. Finally, a community college model was developed. This model was based upon the historical need established in part one, the first principles demonstrated in part two, the experience of the United States studied in part three, and the development of Poland’s educational system examined in part four. The research concluded with a summation of the findings and with recommendations for the successful development of community colleges in Poland.