JESUIT RATIO STUDIORUM OF 1599
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Letter of Transmission of the Ratio of 1599
Rules of the Provincial
Common Rules of Professors of the Higher Faculties
Rules of the Prefect of Lower Studies
Rules for Written Examinations
Laws for Prizes
Common Rules for the Teachers of the Lower Classes
Rules of the Scholastics of the Society
Instruction for Those Engaged in the Two-Year Review of Theology
Rules of the Academy
Notes to the Translation
The teacher shall so train the youths entrusted to the Society’s care that they may acquire not only learning but also habits of conduct worthy of a Christian. He should endeavor both in the classroom and outside to train the impressionable minds of his pupils in the loving service of God and in all the virtues required for this service. In particular let him pay special attention to the following points: At the beginning of class let one of the pupils recite a brief but suitable prayer. This the teacher and pupils should follow attentively, kneeling with heads uncovered. Before the beginning of the lesson the teacher shall with uncovered head make the sign of the cross. Let the teacher see to it that all are present at Mass every day and at the sermon on feast days. Besides, twice a week during Lent, he should either send them or, if such is the local custom, accompany them to the sermon. Let Christian doctrine be learnt and recited from memory on Friday or Saturday, especially in the grammar classes and in the other classes also if it is thought necessary. There may be need in some places and for new pupils to have these lessons more frequently. Likewise on Friday or Saturday the teacher shall give a homily or explain some point of Christian doctrine for half an hour. He should especially urge his pupils to say their daily prayers and in particular the rosary or the little office of the Blessed Virgin, to examine their consciences every evening, frequently and devoutly to receive the sacraments of penance and the holy eucharist, to avoid bad habits, to hate vice, and to cultivate the virtues befitting a Christian.
2 In private talks, too, he should instill in his pupils habits of virtue, in such a way, however, that he will not seem to be enticing anyone to enter our Society. If he meets with anybody who is so inclined, he should refer him to his confessor. He should have the litany of the Blessed Virgin recited in his class every Saturday afternoon, or, if it is the local custom, he should lead his class to the church for the common recitation of the litany with the other pupils. He should encourage his pupils to cultivate devotion to the Blessed Virgin and to their guardian angels. He should strongly recommend spiritual reading, particularly the lives of the saints. In the same spirit he should refrain from reading in class any passage from an indecent writer and from even referring in his prelections to anything that might scandalize his pupils. He should do everything he can to keep them from reading books of this sort outside of school. He should see to it that each boy goes to confession each month. The pupils should be told to hand to their confessor a slip of paper on which is written their name, surname, and class, so that by going over the slips later he will know who failed to go to confession. . Let him frequently pray for his pupils and set before them the good example of his religious life. He shall obey the prefect of studies in all that relates to studies and school discipline. Without his advice he should not admit anyone to his class or dismiss anyone or choose a book for prelection in class or excuse anyone from the common class exercises. Each class must keep to its own subject matter. Rules for the classes of rhetoric and humanities will be given in a separate place. There shall be three grammar classes, and in these a definite curriculum is to be completed. Hence all the precepts of Emmanuel are to be divided into three parts and one part assigned to each class, but in such a way that the matter studied the previous year will always be reviewed at the beginning of the next year, as will be indicated further on in the rules of each teacher.
3 Greek grammar is to be divided thus: the first part, assigned to the lowest class, shall begin with the elements and include the substantive verb and the simple verbs. The second part, for the middle grammar class, shall include the contract nouns, circumflex verbs, the verbs in mi, and the easier constructions. The third part, for the highest grammar class, shall include the remaining parts of speech or whatever goes under the name of rudiments, except dialects and the more difficult exceptions. The fourth class, humanities, shall complete the whole of syntax, and the fifth class, rhetoric, shall study versification. The time schedule for rhetoric shall be at least two hours in the morning and two in the afternoon; for humanities and the other classes, two hours and a half in both morning and afternoon, and on days of recreation at least two hours. This schedule should remain unchanged so that it will be known what classes are in session at each hour. At the provincial’s direction, however, the schedule may be adapted to local custom, provided that it retains the amount of time assigned in the rules of each teacher and that once established it be followed unchanged. If a feast falls on Saturday, the exercises of that day may be advanced a day or omitted. The same time schedule shall be kept on the weekly half-holiday when no specific exercises are assigned. The regular daily exercises should be shortened in proportion or some of them omitted by turns. Some time should be left free for a contest. The practice of speaking Latin must be strictly observed except in those classes in which the pupils know no Latin. The pupils should never be permitted to use their mother tongue in anything connected with Class, and demerits are to be given to those who fail in this observance. Hence also the teacher must always speak Latin. The pupils shall recite the prelections from memory to the decurions, whose duties are explained in the thirty-sixth rule. If another system seems preferable in rhetoric class, it may be used.
4 The decurions themselves should recite their lessons to the chief decurion or to the instructor. Each day the instructor himself shall call for the lesson from some of the lazier pupils and from the latecomers so as to check the fidelity of the decurions and to keep everyone up to the mark. On Saturday what has been learned during one or several weeks should be publicly recited from memory. When a book is finished, some may be chosen to recite it in its entirety from the platform, for which they shall be given an award. . Written work must be handed in by all the grammar classes every day but Saturday. In the other classes prose work must be handed in daily except on the recreation day and on Saturday, poetry exercises twice a week, on Monday and on the day following the weekly holiday, and a Greek composition once a week in the afternoon of a day chosen by the teacher. Written work is ordinarily to be corrected individually and in a low voice with each of the pupils while the others are given time to exercise their style. It will be useful, however, to select some exercises each day, now from the best, again from the worst, and at the beginning and end of the correction period to read and examine them publicly. The general method of correcting written work is to point out mistakes in grammar, to ask how they may be corrected, to instruct class rivals to correct publicly any mistake as soon as they notice it and to quote the rule that has been violated, and, finally, to praise work well done. While this correcting is being done publicly, the pupils are to check and correct their own first copy of the exercise which they must always bring to class in addition to the copy for the teacher. The written work of each pupil ought to be corrected daily by the teacher, since this leads to the very best results. If, however, there are too many pupils for this to be practicable, he should correct as many as possible so that those whom he passes over one day will be called on the next. For this reason, particularly on days when verses are handed in, he should distribute some of the exercises to be corrected by the rivals. To do this more satisfactorily, each pupil should write not only his own name but that of his rival on the reverse of the exercise.
5 The teacher himself shall correct some exercises in the afternoon during the recitation of the memory lesson and some, if he wishes, at home. While he is correcting themes, the teacher should assign a variety of exercises, now one type, now another, suited to the grade of his class; for nothing slackens youthful diligence more than monotony. The repetition of the previous day’s lesson and of the actual assignment should be conducted in the same way. One pupil may recite the whole lesson, but it is better to call on many in turn so as to give practice to all. Only the more important and useful points should be reviewed, first by the more advanced and then by the others. The repetition may be asked as a continuous recitation or in reply to individual questions of the teacher, while each rival corrects the mistakes of his competitor or answers the question himself if his competitor hesitates. On Saturday all the prelections of the week are to be reviewed. Should some offer to answer all questions on the assignment or even on a whole book, a few of these may be selected, letting the others in twos or threes ply them with questions. The diligent should be rewarded. In the prelections, only the ancient classics, never the modern writers, are to be explained. It will be of great advantage if the instructor does not speak on the spur of the moment and at random but only after thoughtfully writing out the prelection at home. He should read the whole book or speech before beginning to teach it. The method of the prelection should in general follow this plan: first, the instructor should read the whole passage to the class, unless, as may happen in rhetoric and humanities, it is too long. Second, he should briefly give the gist of the passage and when necessary its connection with what precedes. Third, he should read over each sentence and, if he is interpreting it in Latin, he should clear up obscurities and show the relation of part to part.
6 He shall give the meaning, not indeed in an awkward paraphrase, matching one Latin word with another, but by recasting the sentence in clearer terms. If he is interpreting the passage in the vernacular, he should keep to the Latin word order as much as he can. In this way the ears of his pupils become accustomed to the Latin rhythm. If the vernacular idiom does not permit this, he should first explain the passage literally and then in the idiom of the vernacular. Fourth, beginning over again, he should make whatever observations on the text are suited to the class, unless he prefers to give this commentary as he goes along. Either during or at the end of the prelections, he should dictate what he wishes the pupils to take down. It should not be much, and it is usually better for the grammar students not to take any notes unless told to do so. The prelection of a writer of history differs from that of a poet in this, that the writer of history receives a more rapid prelection, while the prelection of a poet is often given best in an accurate oratorical paraphrase. The pupils should be accustomed to distinguish the style of a poet from that of an orator. In the prelection of the rhetoric of Cyprian Soarez, of the art of versification, of Latin and Greek grammar, and the like, the subject matter rather than the words should be considered. Brief passages exemplifying the precepts and taken from the best authors should be quoted and immediately translated.* Whenever, particularly in the lower grammar classes, some difficult point comes up, the class should be drilled on this point for one or more days. This may be varied by explaining and reviewing some of the easier rules from other parts of grammar. . The theme for composition should not be dictated ex tempore, but should be thought out and generally written out beforehand. It should be modeled on Cicero as much as possible. and take the form of narration, persuasion, congratulation, admonition, or the like
(Pachtler inserts this one sentence from the Prague edition on the Ratio).
7 If it is dictated word for word, it should be written both in Latin and in the vernacular. The teacher should have the dictation immediately read by one of the class, and he should explain more difficult terms and furnish the pupils with words, phrases, and other aids. Except in rhetoric class, he should always advise them during the dictation how each part is to be written and punctuated. A special assignment, longer than usual, is to be given when several feast days come together or when the major and minor vacations are announced. Class contests are to be highly valued and are to be held whenever time permits, so that honorable rivalry which is a powerful incentive to studies may be fostered. It is customary in these contests to have the teacher ask the questions and the rivals correct the errors or to have the rivals question one another. Individuals or groups from opposite camps, particularly from among the officers, may be pitted against each other, or one pupil may engage several opponents. As a rule a private should seek out a private, an officer seek out an officer. Sometimes, however, a private may match his skill with an officer, and if he comes off the victor, he should be given the rank of the defeated officer or be awarded another prize or symbol of victory as the dignity of the class and local circumstances dictate. Special exercises serve a very useful purpose. It should be a general rule in their regard that in order to cultivate intellectual powers and not merely exercise the memory, what the pupils deliver in public should indeed be carefully polished by their teacher but never entirely written by him. The same is to be said of poems that are to be exhibited publicly. Every effort should be made to train the student speakers in appropriate control of voice, gesture, and all other actions. In the classes of rhetoric and humanities, a prelection or a Greek or Latin oration or a poem should be given every other Saturday, one class playing host to another. In the other classes, there should be a prelection alone, not oftener than once a month and not of new matter but rather the repetition of one heard in class. Visitors should not be invited.
8 At different times during the year on a day agreeable to the prefect of lower studies, there should be a contest lasting an hour between classes nearest to each other in grade and on subject matter common to both. It shall be presided over by the two teachers. Two or three or more of the best of each class shall be the disputants. They may either be pre- pared beforehand for the questions and answers by mutual consent or they may propose whatever questions their ingenuity suggests, or one side may refute objections, especially in rhetoric, that are proposed by the other side. Each month, or at least every other month, officials of the camps are to be chosen and, if it seems good, rewarded too, unless in some places this seems unnecessary in rhetoric class. As a test for choice of officers, the pupils shall write in prose or, if it seems better in the higher classes, in verse or in Greek, during an entire class period. However, it may seem advisable to reserve half an hour for a contest in the lower classes. Those who write the best theme will be chosen chief magistrates. Those who are next highest will likewise receive positions of honor in the order of merit. To give the election an air of erudition, the titles of the officials may be taken from political or military offices in Greece or Rome. The class should be divided into two fairly equal camps to stimulate rivalry. Each camp shall have its officers opposed by those of the rival camp and each pupil shall have his rival. The chief officers of each camp should have the seats of honor. The teacher shall also appoint decurions to hear the memory lesson, collect the compositions, and mark down in a small book the names of any who fail in the memory lesson or neglect to hand in their composition or have not brought two copies of the composition to class. It will also be their duty to perform any other tasks assigned them by the teacher. In preparation for the general promotion, there should be a month’s strenuous review before the examination. It shall be held in all the classes, except possibly in rhetoric, and shall cover the main points of the year’s work. If someone has shown himself far superior to the rest, the teacher should consult the prefect of studies about him so that after a private examination he may be sent to a higher class. At the beginning of the year, the teacher must give the prefect a list of his pupils in alphabetical order. He should occasionally check over this list during the year to make any necessary changes, and he should do this with particular accuracy before the general examinations. In this list he should distinguish the class standings of pupils as best, good, average, doubtful, allowed to remain in school, required to withdraw. He could also indicate these standings by numbers. Nothing helps discipline as much as the observance of the rules. Therefore the teacher must be especially concerned that his pupils observe everything contained in their rules and the rules respecting their studies. Faithful observance will be better secured by the hope of honor and reward and the fear of disgrace than by corporal punishment.
9 The teacher should not be hasty in punishing nor too much given to searching out faults. He should rather pretend not to be aware of an infraction when he can do this without harm to anyone. He shall refrain not only from striking a pupil (this is the corrector’s duty) but also from humiliating anyone by word or act. He shall never call a pupil by any but his own name or surname. He will find it advantageous at times to substitute for the customary punishment some literary task over and above the ordinary daily lesson. He must leave to the prefect the matter of exceptional and severer punishments, especially for offenses committed out of school, and also the case of those who refuse to be punished, in particular if they are older boys. He should demand regular attendance from his pupils. Therefore he must not excuse them to attend public spectacles or plays. When a pupil is absent, the teacher should send one of his fellow pupils or some other person to make inquiries at the boy’s home.
10 Unless a satisfactory excuse is given, the absentee should be punished. Any who are absent for several days without excuse should be sent to the prefect and not readmitted without his consent. To avoid loss of class time during confessions, three or more pupils are to be sent in the beginning and as each one returns One or two more are to be sent. An exception is made where it is the custom for all to go at the same time. It is a prime duty of the teacher to see that silence and good conduct are observed in the classroom, that pupils are not allowed to wander about, change seats, pass little presents or notes back and forth, or leave the classroom, especially two or three at a time. He should take care that no one, especially during the time of the prelection, is called out of class by anyone. To prevent confusion and uproar at dismissal time, he should stand watch at his desk or at the door and see that those who sit nearest the door leave first, or he may make other arrangements to insure that all go out in good order and in silence. If it is agreeable to the rector, the teacher should organize academies according to the rules specially written for them in another place. Meetings should be held particularly on feast days so as to counteract idleness and bad habits. If at times it seems necessary for a pupil’s good to speak with his parents, let the instructor ask the rector whether the prefect or some one else should summon them or whether, owing to their rank or authority, he should visit them. He should not be on friendlier terms with one pupil than with another. Outside of class time, for the sake of good example, he should not speak with his pupils except briefly, on matters of some moment, and in an open place, not inside a classroom, but rather at the door of the classroom or in the entrance hail or at the gate of the college.
11 He shall not propose a tutor for any pupil without the rector’s advice, nor permit his pupils to be burdened by the tutor with other lessons at home, but merely allow the tutor to require a repetition of the day’s assignment. He must never use a pupil as an amanuensis or to perform any task not connected with the customary school exercises. He should not permit the pupils to spend money in any way for the school. Finally, let the teacher, with God’s grace, be painstaking and persevering in every way, interested in the progress of his pupils in their daily lessons and other literary exercises. He must not regard anyone with contempt, but assist the efforts of the poor as much as those of the rich. He should seek the advancement of each and every one of his charges.
RULES OF THE TEACHER OF RHETORIC
12 The scope of this class is not easily defined. Its purpose is the development of the power of self-expression. Its content spans two major fields, oratory and poetry, with oratory taking the place of honor. The purpose of the formation is both practical and cultural. It may be said in general that this class is concerned mainly with the art of rhetoric, the refinement of style, and erudition. Although the precepts may be studied in many authors, the daily prelection shall be confined to the oratorical works of Cicero, to Aristotle’s Rhetoric and, if desired, his Poetics. Cicero is to be the one model of style, though the best historians and poets are to be sampled.
13 All of Cicero’s works are appropriate models of style, but only his orations are to be matter for the prelection, so that the principles of his art may be observed as exemplified in his speeches. Erudition is to be sought in the study of historical events, ethnology, the authoritative views of scholars, and wide sources of knowledge, but rather sparingly according to the capacity of the pupils. In the study of Greek attention should be paid to the rules of prosody and to a general acquaintance with the various authors and the various dialects. The compendium of logic which is given to the pupils toward the end of the year is not to be made the subject of detailed explanation by the teacher of rhetoric. The class periods shall be divided as follows: the first hour of the morning is for memory work. The compositions collected by the decurions are corrected by the teacher, who in the meantime sets various tasks for the class, as described in the fifth rule below. Finally, the previous prelection is reviewed. The second hour of the morning should be spent on a study of the rules of rhetoric if the text of an oration is to be studied in the afternoon. If an oration is read in the forenoon, the rules should occupy the afternoon period. Let the one or the other order be ob- served regularly as elected at the start of the year. Then will follow a repetition of the prelection and, when desirable, a subject is given for a speech or a poem which the pupil is required to write. If any time remains, it is given to a contest or to revising what was written during the first hour. The first hour of the afternoon starts with a repetition of the last prelection. Then a new prelection is given, of an oration if the precepts were Explained in the morning, or of precepts if an oration was explained in the morning. The customary repetition follows.
14 The second hour of the afternoon begins with a review of the last lesson in a Greek author, and is followed by an explanation and quiz on new matter. What time remains is spent, now on correcting Greek themes, now on Greek syntax and prosody, now on a class contest in Greek. On recreation days, an historian or a poet or some matters of erudition will be discussed and a review will follow. On Saturday the work of the whole week is briefly reviewed. Then in the first hour there is an explanation of a passage of history or part of a poem. In the last hour one of the pupils gives an oration or a prelection or the class goes to listen to the class of humanities or there is a debate. In the afternoon part of a poem or a passage of Greek is reviewed. Where a half hour is added to both morning and afternoon, it is devoted to history or poetry, and the usual Saturday repetitions may then be the same as on other days or may give place to a broader repetition or to a contest. Daily memory work is necessary for a student of rhetoric. However, since the passages covered in a prelection are too long to be memorized verbatim, the teacher will decide what and how much is to be memorized and in what manner the pupils will respond if called upon for a report. Further, it would be profitable if now and then someone were to recite from the platform some passages memorized from the best authors, so that exercise of memory will be combined with practice in delivery. In correcting the manuscript of a speech or poem submitted by the pupil, the teacher should correct any fault in oratorical or poetic structure, in elegance and grace of expression, in transitions, rhythm, spell- ing, or anything else. He shall likewise call attention to incorrect, obscure, or inept handling of sources, to evidence of poor taste, to lengthy digressions, and similar faults.
15 When a speech is finally completed, each pupil must hand in the whole speech (which he has already submitted part by part) transcribed in connected or at least corrected form, so that the teacher may know that everybody has finished the assignment. While the teacher is correcting written work, the tasks of the pupils will be, for example, to imitate some passage of a poet or orator, to write a description, say, of a garden, a church, a storm, to change an expression about in various ways, to turn a Greek speech into Latin or a Latin speech into Greek, to turn Latin or Greek verse into prose, to change one kind of poem into another, to compose epigrams, inscriptions, epitaphs, to cull phrases from good orators or poets, both Latin and Greek, to apply figures of rhetoric to some subject or other, to draw arguments for any subjects from the commonplaces of rhetoric, and other exercises of a similar nature. The prelection in this class is of two kinds: the one looks to the art of rhetoric and explains the application of precepts, the other deals with style as studied in orations. Two precautions are to be observed in both of these procedures. First, suitable authors are to be chosen for study, second, standard methods are to be employed in the analysis of the content. Enough has been said in the first rule to cover the first point. Only Cicero is to be taken for orations, and both Cicero and Aristotle for the precepts of rhetoric. The oration is never to be omitted. So great is the force of oratorical precepts that their explanation is to be continued through practically the entire year. But toward the end of the year local custom may favor the substitution of some new author whose richness of erudition and variety in subject matter attracts interest. This change may be permitted. A pre-lection on a poet may sometimes be given in place of the prelection on the precepts or on an oration. As for the method of the prelection, the rule of rhetoric should be explained in this way. First, the sense of the precept is to be made clear by comparing the opinions of commentators if the precept is somewhat ambiguous and the commentators do not agree.
16 Second, other rhetoricians who give the same precept, or the author himself, if he repeats the precepts elsewhere, should be quoted. Third, the reason for the rule should be considered. Fourth, its use should be exemplified in a number of similar and striking passages of orators and poets. Fifth, any additional material from learned sources and from history that bear on the rule should be cited. Lastly, the teacher should illustrate by his own excellent diction and style how the rule may be applied in writing on present-day subjects. If, however, a speech or a poem is being studied, first, the meaning must be explained if it is obscure, and the various interpretations appraised. Second, the whole technique should be examined, that is, the author’s skill in invention, disposition, and expression, how deftly the speaker ingratiates himself, how appropriately he speaks, what sources of arguments he draws upon to persuade, to embellish, to arouse emotion, how often he exemplifies many principles in a single passage, how he clothes his argument in figures of thought, and how again he combines figures of thought and word-figures to compel belief. Third, some passages similar in content and expression to the one under discussion should be referred to and other orators and poets cited who have applied the same precepts in urging some similar argument or in narrating a similar incident. Fourth, the argument itself should be confirmed by weighty authorities, if it lends itself to this. Fifth, materials from history, fables, and other learned sources that may illumine the subject should be investigated. Last of all, attention should be directed to the use of words, their fitness, beauty, fullness, and rhythm. All these varied suggestions are offered, not as though the teacher must follow them all, but only that he may choose those which seem most suited to his purpose. The subject matter for the speech, which pupils are required to write each month, should be dictated either in its entirety at the beginning of the month or in parts, week by week. The matter dictated should be brief, touching on the several parts of the speech, indicating the sources of arguments to be used for confirmation and development, the principal figures that might be employed, and, if it seems advisable, some passages in good authors which could be imitated. Occasionally, when a particular orator is designated for imitation in building up a speech, the argument may be given word for word.
17 The subject matter for verse may be given orally or in writing. It may be no more than a topic to write upon, or it may suggest lines of development. The verse may be short, as for example an epigram, an ode, an elegy, or an epistle, which can be completed in one assignment, or it may be longer and composed, like the speeches, in several stages. Practically the same method should be followed for the Greek theme, unless it be thought better that for a time everything should be dictated word for word. The theme should be assigned at least once a week, in either prose or verse. The class contest or exercise should include such things as correcting the mistakes which one rival may have detected in the other’s composition, questioning one another on the exercise written in the first hour, discovering and devising figures of speech, giving a repetition or illustrating the use of rules of rhetoric, of letter writing, of verse making, and of writing history, explaining some more troublesome passages of an author or of clearing up the difficulties, reporting research on the customs of the ancients and other scholarly information, interpreting hieroglyphics and Pythagorean symbols, maxims, proverbs, emblems, riddles, delivering declamations, and other similar exercises at the teacher’s pleasure. The Greek prelection, whether in oratory, history, or poetry, must include only the ancient classics: Demosthenes, Plato, Thucydides, Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, and others of similar rank (provided they be expurgated), and with these, in their own right, Saints Gregory Nazianzen, Basil, and Chrysostom. During the first semester, orations and history are to be studied, but may be interrupted once a week by reading some epigrams or other short poems. Conversely, during the second semester a poet should be explained, interrupted once a week by reading an orator or historian. The method of interpretation, while not entirely neglectful of artistic structure and erudition, should rather deal with the idiom of the language and skill in its use. Therefore, some passages are to be dictated in every prelection. Greek syntax and prosody are to be explained, if there is need, in the beginning of the year on al- ternate days. Syntax is to be reviewed briefly and only its principal headings considered.
18 For the sake of erudition, other and more recondite subjects may be introduced on the weekly holidays in place of thee historical work, for example, hieroglyphics, emblems, questions of poetic technique, epigrams, epitaphs, odes, elegies, epics, tragedies, the Roman and Athenian senate, the military system of the two countries, their gardens, dress, dining customs, triumphs, the sibyls, and other kindred subjects, but in moderation. A declamation or prelection or poem or Greek oration or both a poem and a speech should be delivered from the platform by one or other of the pupils in the presence of the Humanities class on alternate Saturdays during the last half-hour of the morning. Usually once a month, an oration or poem or both, now in Latin, now in Greek, and written in a particularly elevated style, should be delivered in the hall or the church. Or there might be a display in de- bate, two sides arguing a case to a decision. The manuscripts of these presentations must be looked over and approved beforehand by the prefect of higher studies. The best verses of the pupils should be posted on the classroom walls every other month to celebrate some more important feast day or to announce the new officials of the class or for some other occasion. If it is the custom in any place, even shorter prose compositions may be posted, such as inscriptions from shields, churches, tombs, parks, statues, or descriptions of a town, a port, an army, or narratives of some deed of a saint or, finally, paradoxes. Occasionally, with the rector’s consent, pictures may be displayed which pertain to the works of art described or ideas expressed in the written exhibits.
19 At times the teacher can assign the writing of some short dramatic episode instead of the usual topic, for example, an eclogue, a scene, or a dialogue, so that the best may afterwards be performed in class, with the roles portioned out to different pupils. But no costumes or stage settings are to be allowed. All that has been said on the method of teaching applies to the instruction of scholastics of the Society. In addition, scholastics are to have repetitions at home under the direction of their teacher, or before some one else whom the rector shall assign, three or four times a week for an hour and at a time the rector thinks most convenient. In these repetitions the Greek and Latin prelections are to be reviewed, and prose and verse in Latin and Greek are to be corrected. They should be bidden to cultivate their memory by learning each day some passage by heart and they must read much and attentively. Nothing, in fact, so develops resourcefulness of talent as frequent individual practice in speaking from the platform in the hall, in church, and in school--opportunities which they share with externs--as well as in the refectory. Finally, their verse compositions, approved by their teacher and bearing their respective signatures, should be put on exhibition in some suitable place.
RULES OF THE TEACHER OF HUMANITIES
20 The scope of this class is to lay the foundations for the course in eloquence after the pupils have finished their grammar studies. Three things are required: knowledge of the language, a certain amount of erudition, and an acquaintance with the basic principies of rhetoric. Knowledge of the language involves correctness of expression and ample vocabulary, and these are to be developed by daily readings in the works of Cicero, especially those that contain reflections on the standards of right living. For history, Caesar, Sallust, Livy, Curtius, and others like them are to be taken. Virgil, with the exceptions of some eclogues and the fourth book of the Aeneid, is the matter for poetry, along with Horace’s selected odes. To these may be added elegies, epigrams, and other poems of recognized poets, provided they are purged of all immoral expressions. Erudition should be introduced here and there as a means of stimulating intellectual interest and relaxing the mind.
21 It should not be allowed to distract attention from concentrated study of the language. A brief summary of the rules of rhetoric should be given in the second semester from the De Arte Rhetorica of Cyprian Soarez, and during this time the moral philosophy of Cicero is to be replaced with some of his simpler speeches, as for instance the Pro Lege Manilia, Pro Archia, Pro Marcello, and the other orations delivered in the presence of Caesar. Greek syntax belongs to this class. Besides, care must be had that the pupils understand Greek writers fairly well and that they know how to compose something in Greek. This shall be the time schedule. The first hour in the morning: Cicero and the rules of prosody shall be recited from memory to the decurions. The teacher shall correct the compositions gathered by the decurions, assigning meanwhile various tasks, as explained below in the fourth rule. Lastly, some shall recite pub- licly and the teacher shall inspect the marks reported by the decurions. Second hour in the morning: a short review of the last passage commented on, then a new pre- lection for half an hour or a little longer, and then a quiz. If time remains, it shall be spent on a competition among the pupils themselves. Last half hour in the morning: in the beginning of the first semester, history and prosody on alternate days; history is read rapidly every day when prosody is completed. In the second semester, the De Arte Rhetorica of Cyprian Soarez is explained daily, then reviewed or made the subject of disputation. First hour in the afternoon: poetry and the Greek author are recited from memory, while the teacher looks over the marks given by the decurions and corrects either the exercises assigned in the morning or the home tasks not yet corrected. At the end of the period a topic and suggested outline is dictated.
22 The hour and a half following is equally divided between a review and a prelection of poetry and a Greek prelection and composition. On recreation days: first hour, repetition from memory of the passage explained on the previous recreation day and correction as usual of leftover written work. Second hour: prelection followed by a quiz on some epigrams, odes or elegies, or something from the third book of the De Arte Rhetorica of Cyprian Soarez on tropes, figures, and especially on rhythm and oratorical cadences to accustom the pupils to them in the beginning of the year. Instead of this some chria-type essay may be analyzed and studied or, finally, there may be a class contest. On Saturday morning: first hour, public recita- tion from memory of prelections given during the whole week, followed in the second hour by a discussion of this matter. Last half hour: either one of the pupils shall declaim or give a prelection or the class shall attend a session of the class of Rhetoric, or a competition may be held. In the afternoon: first half hour, recitation of poetry from memory and the catechism, while the teacher goes over compositions, if any remain uncorrected from the week, and inspects the records kept by the decurions. The next hour and a half is divided equally between a review of poetry or a prelection of a short poem, followed by a quiz, and similar exercises in Greek. The last half hour shall be spent in explaining the catechism or in a spiritual talk, unless this was given on Friday, in which case what was then displaced by the catechism should be taken at this time. In correcting written work, the teacher shall point out any wrong use of words or any impropriety of expression or fault of rhythm, any lack of fidelity in imitating the author, any mistakes in spelling or any other error. He should train the pupils to express a given idea in a variety of ways as a means of enriching their vocabulary.
23 While the master is engaged in correcting written work he should have the pupils spend their time in such exercises as choosing phrases from previously read passages and expressing them in different ways, reconstructing a passage from Cicero that had been disarranged for this purpose, composing verses, changing a poem of one kind into another kind, imitating some passage, writing a Greek composition, and such other exercises. The prelection should be supplemented here and there with some points of general erudition to the extent that the passage calls for it. The teacher should concentrate all his effort on the idioms of Latin itself, the precise meanings of words and their origins (in which he should rely on recognized authorities, chiefly on the ancients). He should explain the value of special phrases, of variety of expression, and should encourage careful imitation of the style of the author whose work is being read. He should not consider it foreign to his purpose occasionally to cite some passage in the vernacular, if it has special value for the interpretation of the matter in hand or is noteworthy in its own right. When he is explaining an oration, he should advert to the rules of the art of rhetoric. Finally, if he thinks it advantageous, he may translate the whole passage into the vernacular, but in a polished style. The subject matter for written work in the first semester should generally be dictated word for word in the vernacular, and should take the form of a letter. It will often be found useful to build up the assignment by weaving together passages taken here and there from matter previously read. Usually once a week, however, the pupils should write from their own resources, after some type of letter has been explained to them and models of the type pointed out in the letters of Cicero or Pliny. Then in the second semester their own ability should be challenged by having them write, first, chrias, then introductions, narratives, and amplifications. A simple yet sufficiently detailed summary should be given them to work with.
24 The teacher should dictate in Latin the matter for verse composition and should suggest a wide variety of expressions. The method with the Greek theme will be the same as that for Latin prose, except that generally it should be taken from the author and the syntax fully explained. In class competition the matter shall be the mistakes a rival has detected in his opponent’s theme, questions on topics assigned for exercise in the first hour, reciting from memory or varying the phrases given them by the teacher in the prelection, reciting or applying the rules of letter writing and of rhetoric, determining the quantity of syllables and giving the rule from memory or an example from poetry, examining into the exact meaning and derivation of words, interpreting a passage from a Latin or Greek author, inflecting and giving the principal parts of more difficult and irregular Greek verbs, and other similar matters, as the master may choose. Prosody should be covered rapidly, dwelling only on what the master sees the pupils lack most, and drilling them on the matter rather than explaining it. Similarly, the rules rather than the words of Cyprian’s De Arte Rhetorica are to be briefly explained, with examples added from the same book and, if possible, from the passages commented on in class. In the Greek prelection, grammar and author shall be explained on alternate days. There should be a brief review of the grammar studied in the highest grammar class, followed by syntax and rules of accent. The prose author for the first semester should be one of the easier authors, for example, some orations of Isocrates, of St. Chrysostom, of St. Basil, or some let- ters of Plato and Synesius or a selection from Plutarch. In the second semester a poem is to be explained, chosen, for example, from Phocylides, Theognis, St. Gregory Nazianzen, Synesius, and the like. The explanation, however, as the grade of the class requires, should rather advance knowledge of the language than erudition. Still, toward the end of the year, Greek prosody may be given along with the author on alternate days, and at times Greek poems, disarranged from their metrical form, may be assigned to be recast.
25 Every second month the best verses written by the pupils are to be posted on the walls of the classroom to lend color to the celebration of some special day, or to the announcement of class officers, or to some similar occasion. Local custom may sanction the posting of even shorter pieces, such as inscriptions for shields, churches, tombs, gardens, statutes, or descriptions of a town, a harbor, an army, or narratives of a deed of some saint, or, finally, paradoxical sayings. Occasionally, too, with the rector’s permission, pictures may be displayed referring to the inscriptions or the compositions placed on exhibition.
RULES OF THE TEACHER OF THE HIGHEST GRAMMAR CLASS
26 The aim of this class is to achieve a complete and perfect knowledge of grammar. The teacher shall therefore review syntax from the beginning, adding all the exceptions. Then he shall explain figures of speech and rules of prosody. In Greek, however, he shall cover the eight parts of speech or whatever is embraced under the name of rudiments except dialects and the more unusual variations. The reading matter in prose in the first semester shall be taken from the more important of Cicero’s letters Ad Familiares, Ad Atticum, Ad Quintum Fratrem; in the second semester, his De Amicitia, De Senectute, Paradoxa, and the like. From the poets, in the first semester, some selected and expurgated elegies and epistles of Ovid should be taken, and in the second semester expurgated selections from Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, the eclogues of Vergil, or also some of the easier books of Virgil, such as the fourth book of the Georgics and the fifth and seventh books of the Aeneid. In Greek, St. John Chrysostom, Aesop, Agapetus, and such authors are to be taken.
27 The division of time shall be as follows. For the first hour in the morning, recital of grammar and Cicero from memory to the decurions, while the teacher corrects the themes collected by the decurions, meantime assigning various exercises to the pupils, as described in the fourth rule below. In the second hour the prelection of Cicero will be briefly repeated and new matter explained, followed by a quiz for half an hour. Finally, the subject and outline of content for an assigned composition is dictated. During the last half hour the grammar lesson is reviewed, a new lesson explained and questions asked on it. Sometimes a competition may occupy this period. In the first semester there shall be a rapid review of the grammatical constructions seen in the previous class, then the matter proper to this class is to be taken up. On alternate days the general rules of prosody, omitting the exceptions, are to be explained. In the second semester there must be at least a two months’ review of that part of grammar belonging to the lowest class, and every second day the rules of prosody already explained are to be reviewed briefly and rapidly, leaving the necessary amount of time for explaining the other rules. After finishing the review of grammar, prosody is to be explained every day, including the exceptions, the verse forms and the rules that are given for the formation of patronymics and accent. In the first half hour of the afternoon the poet or Greek author is to be recited from memory, while the teacher looks over the marks of the decurions and corrects either the morning exercises or the homework not yet corrected. The following hour and a half is to be divided between a review and a prelection of the Latin poet and a prelection and written work in Greek. A little more than half an hour is to be devoted to Greek. The last half hour, or whatever remains of it, shall be spent in a class contest. On Saturday morning there shall be a memory recitation of the prelections of the whole week or of an entire book, followed by discussion for an hour. The final half hour shall be given to competition.
28 The same order will be kept in the afternoon except that the catechism is also to be recited. The last half hour shall be spent in explaining the catechism or in a spiritual talk, unless this was given on Friday, in which case what was then displaced by the catechism should be taken at this time. In correcting written work the teacher must note whether there have been violations of grammar, spelling, punctuation, whether difficulties have been dodged, whether insufficient attention has been paid to taste in expression or in imitation of the model. While the teacher is correcting written work, the exercises assigned to the pupils shall be, for example, to turn into Latin passages dictated in the vernacular either in imitation of the author or as an exercise in the rules of syntax, to translate a passage of Cicero into the vernacular and retranslate the same into Latin, and then cull from the passage the choicest expression, to propose, rival to rival, difficulties for solution and expressions for interpretation based on the grammar recently explained, to recast disarranged lines of verse, or compose in verse, to practice writing Greek, and other exercises of the same sort. The method of the prelection shall be as follows. First, the teacher shall briefly state the content of the passage in Latin and in the vernacular. He shall then interpret each sentence, first in Latin, then in the vernacular. Third, going through the passage again from the beginning (unless he wishes to insert this in the interpretation), he shall select two or three words and carefully explain their force or derivation and support his explanation by one or another example taken principally from the same author. He should analyze and explain metaphorical expressions, and briefly comment on the mythology, history, and general erudition that may be suggested by the passage. He should pick out two or three examples of elegance of diction. Finally, he should rapidly translate the passage into the vernacular. He may dictate very briefly in Latin the sense of the passage together with his observations and examples of precision and diction. The subject matter for written work is to be dictated word for word in the vernacular, generally in the form of a letter.
29 This letter should be done in Latin with careful attention paid to the rules of syntax and the style of Cicero. When, however, the pupils have made some progress, once a month they should write a completely original essay, either at home in place of the daily assignment or in school as part of the qualifying competition required in the choosing of class officers. Beforehand the teacher should call attention to a given type of letter, explain its nature, point out certain examples of such letters written by Cicero and then dictate a few specimens composed by himself. Poems should be dictated, first with words arranged in prose order, then with new words substituted for the originals, and finally new subject matter may be presented with suggestions for different ways of expressing it. The method of the Greek theme shall be the same as for Latin prose, except that generally it is to be taken from the author and its syntax indicated in advance. The Greek prelection, which should seldom take up more than a quarter of an hour, should follow the same form as that for Latin, with this exception, that when a Greek author is read (it may be read on alternate days with grammar, if the prefect approves), individual words are to be explained and, if it seems helpful, also a bit of easy syntax may be added. . The subject matter of the class competition shall be: Point out mistakes which a student has found in his rival’s theme, ask questions on the tasks as- signed in the first hour of the day, recite from memory expressions given the pupils by the teacher, ask one another to give Latin translations or variations of expressions in the vernacular based on the rules of syntax or modeled on Cicero. In this exercise the one questioned should repeat word for word the expression proposed for translation and, after a little reflection, translate it, not word for word, but in a complete and connected Latin version. Again they should recite the rules for writing letters, determine the quantity of syllables by quoting from memory the rule of prosody or an example from a poet, inquire into the proper useor etymology of a word, interpret some passage of a Latin or Greek author, decline nouns or conjugate verbs in Greek, and other similar exercises at the teacher’s discretion.
RULES OF THE TEACHER OF THE MIDDLE GRAMMAR CLASS
30 The objective of this class is a complete though not exhaustive knowledge of grammar. The teacher explains the matter from the beginning of the second book [of the Grammar of Alvarez] down to figures of speech, including only the easiest exceptions, or, according to the Roman method, from the syntax of verbs down to figures of speech, with the addition of the easier exceptions. Greek in this class includes contract nouns, circumflex verbs, verbs in mi, and the easier verb formations. For the prelections, only Cicero’s letters Ad Familiares and the simplest poems of Ovid are to be studied, and in the second semester, if the prefect ap- proves, the Greek catechism or the Tabula of Cebes. This shall be the division of time. The first hour in the morning shall be spent in a recital of grammar and Cicero from memory to the decurions, while the teacher corrects the compositions collected by the decurions and assigns various exercises to be done by the pupils in the meantime, as described in the fourth rule below. In the second hour the prelection of Cicero is briefly reviewed and a new one given for half an hour, followed by a quiz. At the end a theme for a composition is dictated. There will be a review during the last half hour of some matter from the first book of grammar, such as the declension of nouns, then successively perfects and supines.
31 This review may be carried out by means of a class contest. For the first hour of the afternoon there will be a recitation from memory of Latin and Greek grammar and, on appointed days, of poetry. Meanwhile the teacher looks over the marks of the decurions and corrects the exercises assigned that morning or any homework not yet corrected. At the end of the hour, the last lesson of grammar, and on alternate days, of poetry are reviewed. During the first half hour of the next period, syntax will be explained and repeated, but in the second semester syntax again and also poetry on alternate days. Greek is taught during the next half hour. The final half hour shall be given to class competition or other exercise. On Saturday morning for the first hour the lessons of the entire week or of an entire book are to be re- cited from memory, followed in the second hour by a discussion of this matter. The last half hour shall be spent in a class contest. The same order is kept in the afternoon, except that during the first hour along with grammar and poetry the catechism is recited. The final half hour shall be given to a lesson on the catechism or occasionally to a spiritual exhortation, unless this was given on Friday, in which case what was then displaced by the catechism should be taken at this time. In correcting written work, the teacher should point out errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation, and any difficulties that have been passed over.
32 He should judge the whole exercise in the light of the grammatical rules and, whenever the opportunity offers, he should recall to the pupils’ memory the conjugations and the rudiments. While the teacher is correcting the written work, he should assign the pupils such exercises as the following: turn into Latin passages dictated in the vernacular either in imitation of the author and especially as an exercise in the rules of syntax, trans- late a passage of Cicero into the vernacular and re- translate the same into Latin, match rivals and propose difficulties for solution and expressions for interpretation based on the grammar recently explained, practice writing Greek, and other exercises of the same sort. In the review of the matter previously seen, the teacher shall sometimes take occasion in any way he wishes to demand of the pupils the more difficult points in declensions, conjugations, and rules of grammar. The method for the prelection of Cicero, which should in general cover no more than seven lines, is as follows. First, the teacher shall read the whole passage without interruption and give the sense very briefly in the vernacular. Second, he should give a word for word interpretation of the passage in the vernacular. Third, starting at the beginning, he should point out the structure and then, separating the sentence into parts, he should show how the verbs govern the various cases and how a great deal of the passage exemplifies the rules of grammar already explained. He may make an observation here and there on Latin usage, but very briefly. He should explain the metaphors by examples well known to everybody. Lastly, he should select one or two expressions and dictate only these to the class along with the general sense of the passage. Fourth, he should again run through the passage in the vernacular. Matter for the written work should be dictated in the vernacular, word for word, clearly, and not more than seven lines in length. It should aim at practice in the rules of grammar and at imitation of Cicero. Sometimes the pupils should be required to add to their themes the translation of a short passage from Cicero or the conjugation of a Greek tense or the declension of a Greek noun. The grammar prelection should take only one rule at a time, with the addition at most of one of the shorter notes or exceptions. The same proportion is to be observed in teaching Greek. It seems helpful to add vernacular equivalents to the cases and persons and for the most part to explain everything in the vernacular.
34 During the class competition pupils shall call attention to the mistakes a pupil has discovered in his rival’s theme, ask questions on the exercises they have been engaged on during the first hour, recite from memory expressions given them by the teacher, ask one another the translation of vernacular phrases according to the rules of syntax or in imitation of Cicero (the phrase asked should at once be repeated in the exact words by the one questioned, and after brief reflection he should translate it, not word for word, but by means of a neat Latin phrase or sentence), inflect the more difficult nouns and verbs, especially those which have occurred in the prelections, in either regular or changed order of cases and tenses, and either alone or with modifying adjective, noun or pronoun, re- cite rapidly from memory past participles and supines, and other similar exercises as the teacher may decide.
RULES OF THE TEACHER OF THE LOWEST GRAMMAR CLASS
35 The objective of this class is a perfect knowledge of rudiments and a beginning knowledge of syntax. The class starts with the declensions and goes up to the conjugation of ordinary verbs. Where there are two separate divisions in this class, the lower division will study nouns, verbs, rudiments, the fourteen rules of construction, and the genders and nouns from the first book; the higher division will study the matter on declensions (omitting the footnotes) and the matter on past participles and supines from the first book, and from the second book the introduction to syntax (omitting the exceptions) as far as impersonal verbs. In Greek, the lower division will learn to read and write; the higher will learn the ordinary nouns, the substantive and barytone verb. The prelection takes in only the easiest letters of Cicero carefully selected for this purpose and, if possible, separately printed.
36 The order of class time is the following. In the first hour of the morning there will be recitation from memory of Cicero and of grammar to the decurions. The written work, gathered by the decurions, is corrected by the teacher, who will assign exercises to be done in the meantime, as specified below in the fourth rule. In the second hour there is a brief repetition of the prelection on Cicero and, for half an hour, explanation and review of new matter. Lastly, subject matter for a theme is dictated. In the last half hour of the morning, each division has an explanation and repetition of some matter from its own assignment in the first book. This explanation may be given to each division on alternate days or to both daily. After- wards the pupils shall be questioned on all this matter either by the teacher or by themselves in competition. On days when no new grammatical rule will be explained in the afternoon (and each rule is to be im- pressed on mind and memory for several days together), the morning prelection is to be transferred to the afternoon and the entire last half hour of the morning given over to a class contest or other exercise. In the first hour of the afternoon there is to be a recital from memory of Latin and Greek grammar, while the teacher inspects the marks assigned by the decurions and for half an hour at most corrects writ- ten assignments of the first morning period or what re- mains to be corrected of the written homework. At the end there shall be a review of the previous grammar prelection. In the second hour, syntax is explained in the higher division, and in the lower the basic rules on the gender of nouns and afterwards the four- teen rules of construction. A little more than a quarter of an hour is given to Greek. The last half hour is devoted to a competition or to a consideration of something dictated on the rules of grammar. In the first hour on Saturday morning, the matter seen during the past week should be publicly recited from memory. During the second hour it should be re- viewed. During the last half hour there is a contest.
37 The same order holds for the afternoon, except that during the first hour, together with grammar, the catechism is recited, and in the last half hour the catechism is explained or a spiritual exhortation given, unless this was given on Friday, in which case the time should usually be spent on whatever was displaced by the catechism. In correcting written work, the teacher should point out mistakes in grammar, spelling, and punctuation, and any dodging of difficulties. He should take grammatical correctness as his standard of judgment, and whenever the occasion offers he should call attention to errors in conjugations and declensions. Exercises to be assigned the pupils while the teacher is correcting the written work shall consist, for example, in translating into Latin something in the vernacular affording practice in the use of the rules of syntax, in translating a passage of Cicero into the vernacular and then retranslating it into Latin, in one rival questioning another on the grammatical precepts, particularly those recently studied, and on expressions exemplifying these precepts, in arranging or composing examples of the concords, in writing something in Greek, and in other things of the same sort. In the review of the prelection, the teacher should at times use the occasion in whatever way he chooses to demand of the pupils the declensions and conjugations and a review of grammar. The prelection of Cicero, which will cover no more than about four lines, shall be done as follows. Let the teacher first read the entire passage without interruption, and then give the sense of the passage very briefly in the vernacular. In the second place, let him interpret the passage word for word in the vernacular. In the third place, starting from the be- ginning, let him indicate the structure and then let him take up each phrase or clause and show which case each verb governs. Let him examine most of the passage to show how it exemplifies the rules of grammar already explained. Let him make one or other comment on Latin usage, but briefly. Let him explain the metaphors by well-known parallels. He should not dictate anything except perhaps the general sense of the passage.
38 In the fourth place, let him again run through the passage in the vernacular. The written assignment is to be dictated word for word in the vernacular. Its meaning should be clear and it should usually be no more than four lines long. Its aim should be practiced in applying the rules of grammar. Sometimes the pupils should be required to add to it the translation of a short passage from Cicero or some expression illustrating the rules of syntax or some parallel expression from their elementary Greek, or something else of the sort. The grammar prelection should cover at most only one precept at a time, and until this is well mastered no other should be taken up. The class contest shall consist in checking the mistakes which each rival has detected in the other’s theme, in alternately quizzing each other on matter which was studied during the first hour, or in testing each other on translating vernacular expressions into Latin. In this exercise the one who is to answer should repeat the expression aloud, and then after a moment’s reflection, translate it not in a mechanical word for word manner, but by means of a neat Latin phrase or sentence. Again they should check up on their knowledge of vocabulary and inflections, especially in regard to verbs and nouns found in a passage recently studied. These inflections may be reviewed either by following the paradigm order or by skipping about; and adjectives may be combined with nouns. They may also ask for basic rules together with examples, and match vernacular forms with the corresponding Latin and vice versa. They may change active verbs into the passive form or be asked to identify past participles and supines, genders and cases, and invent similar problems with the approval of the teacher.
|
